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EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


FREDERICK  B.    ROBINSON,   A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Professor,  Department  of  Public  Speaking:, 

The  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 


lasalle  extension  university 

CHICAGO 
1919 


^ 


Copyrighted,  1914,  1015, 
LaSalle   Extension   University 


CONTENTS 

I.     ORGANIZATION 

j^  1.     Introduction — Organization  of  Ideas 1 

t  J.     General  Plan  of  a  Speech 17 

^  8.     Purpose  of  the  Introduction 31 

-  4.     Purpose  of  the  Introduction  (Continued) 49 

*  5.     Arrangement  of  ^Matter  in  the  Body  of  the  Speech 67 

r  6.     The  Conclusion 85 

II.     DELIVERY 

7.     Physical  Aspects  of  Delivery 105 

*  S.     Subjective  Aspects  of  Delivery 129 

III.     DETAILS  OF  COMPOSITION 

T  9.     Images  and  the  ]\Iind  of  the  Audience '.  .  151 

"^  10.     The  Expression  of  Images — Vocabulary  Luihling 171 

— '  1 1 .     Vocabulary  Building 193 

-{'"■12.     General  Ideas  or  Concepts 211 

13.  Arguments  and  their  Presentation 229 

1 4.  Inductive  and  Deductive  Arguments 251 

15.  Argumentation,  Briefing,  and  Floor  Tactics 273 

-^1  (5.     The  Appeal  to  Action 291 

IV.     PRACTICAL   PR0BLE:\IS   OF   DELIVERY 

17.     Speech  Material  and  Its  Preparation 311 

4-18.     Attention  of  the  Speaker  and  of  the  Audience 327 

-^19.     Purpose  of  a  Speech 345 


iv  CONTEXTS 

20.  The  Expressive  Voire 363 

21.  Gestures 381 

22.  Hygiene  for  Public  Speakers 399 

V.     PRACTICAL  SPEECH  DIRECTIONS  FOR 
SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

23.  Practical  Speech  Directions  for  Special  Occasions....  411 

24.  Practical  Speech  Directions  (Continued) 427 

25.  Practical  Speech  Directions  (Concluded) 443 


EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


introduction 

Efficiency,  What  It  Is 

Ours  is  the  age  of  efficiency.  Everywhere  men  are 
devising  the  most  efficient  methods  of  performing  the 
operations  of  their  callings.  Business  men  seek  the  most 
efficient  system  of  filing  and  bookkeeping,  the  manufac- 
turer organizes  his  labor  force  and  machinery  so  that 
every  ounce  of  effort  gives  the  greatest  possible  return 
in  goods.  The  railroads  are  replacing  steam  with  electric 
power,  and  surgeons  spend  many  hours  planning  the  best 
way  to  remove  an  appendix  in  the  shortest  time. 

Mechanical  inventors  speak  of  a  machine  as  efficient 
when  it  does  its  work  without  loss  of  power.  If  a  hundred 
pounds  of  steam  pressure  are  applied  to  it,  the  full 
hundred  pounds  are  accounted  for  in  valuable  engine 
power.  There  is  no  w^aste.  Any  instrument  is  efficient 
when  it  gets  the  most  work  from  a  given  amount  of  effort. 

When  we  attempt  to  apply  the  idea  of  efficiency  to 
public  speaking,  wo  find  that  it  is  best  expressed  by  the 
word  ''effective."  The  two  words  ''efficient"  and 
"effective"  have,  to  be  sure,  very  much  the  same  signifi- 
cance. ' '  Effective, ' '  however,  throws  the  emphasis  a  little 
more  upon  the  tangible  result,  upon  the  effect  produced 
by  any  instrument.    Now  speech  is  one  of  our  most  use- 

1 


2  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ful  instruments.  It  is  employed  to  cany  messages  from 
one  mind  to  many  otliers.  If  it  carries  the  message  truly 
and  forcefully,  it  is  effective;  but  if  it  loses  part  of  the 
message  or  gives  it  in  such  weak  form  that  it  does  not 
impress  the  other  mind  at  all,  it  is  ineffective.  Speech, 
U  then,  is  an  instrument  through  which  one  mind  works 
upon  others.    It  ought  to  be  made  most  effective. 

Effective  Speech,  Thought,  and  Expression 

Probably  the  most  remarkable  product  of  nature,  in  its 
centuries  of  evolution,  is  the  human  mind ;  and  the  second 
wonder  of  the  universe  is  the  communication  of  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  of  one  mind  to  others  by  means 
of  the  voice  in  speech  and  by  means  of  the  body  in  ges- 
ticulation. Each  man  is  limited  in  the  position  he  may 
assume  in  the  world  by  the  development  of  his  mind.  If 
he  has  stored  up  in  it  a  reliable  memory  of  many  experi- 
ences, if  his  judgment  is  well  trained,  if  his  ideas  are 
good  and  his  will  is  strong,  then  is  he  a  source  of  tre- 
mendous power.  But  to  exert  it  upon  others,  to  make 
his  ideas  their  ideas,  to  lead  them  to  accept  his  judg- 
ments, and  to  bend  them  to  his  will,  his  speech  must  be 
efficient.  It  must  transfer  to  others,  without  loss,  the 
complete  creations  of  his  brain. 

Each  of  us  is  therefore  a  source  of  power.  But  we 
are  unable  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  it  unless  we  can  ex- 
press all  our  ideas  well,  '^^^lat  good  would  it  have  done 
the  American  people  if  Patrick  Henry  had  felt  immeasur- 
able indignation  at  the  wrongs  England  was  heaping 
upon  the  colonists,  Imt  had  not  been  alile  to  give  them 
eloquent  tongue  in  his  famous  *'Ap])eal  to  Arms"?  A 
business  manager  may  kiicnv  precisely  how  he  can  organ- 


INTRODUCTION  3 

ize  liis  corporation  so  that  the  community  will  benefit  in 
better  commodities  and  the  stockholders  reap  larger 
dividends;  but  to  put  his  ideas  into  operation,  he  must 
first,  by  exposition  and  argument,  win  over  the  board  of 
directors.  He  must  be  able  to  make  clear  to  the  proper 
people  what  is  perfectly  clear  to  him.  In  short,  no  argu- 
ment is  necessary  to  prove  that  a  speaker  who  wishes 
to  influence  others,  either  in  conversation  or  conference, 
in  court  of  law  or  on  pulpit  or  platform,  must  be  able  to 
express  his  entire  thought  and  purpose  by  means  of 
speech. 

Natuke  of  These  Lessons 

The  object  of  this  course  is  to  develop  effective  speech. 
Incidentally  the  student  will  be  led  to  improve  his  general 
mental  hal)its;  he  will  be  trained  to  systematic  reading, 
research,  and  thought.  But  the  attention  will  be  directed 
primarily  to  the  organization  and  delivery  of  speeches. 
It  would  be  ridiculous  to  suppose  that  a  man  who  needs 
training  in  speech-making  can  become  eloquent  merely 
by  spending  a  few  minutes  a  day  reading  a  book  on  pub- 
lic speaking  in  the  privacy  of  his  home  or  office.  Speech 
is  an  art  which  can  be  mastered  only  by  much  practice 
under  competent  direction.  These  lessons  will  give 
simple  explanations  of  the  principles  of  speech-making 
and  they  will  outline  practical  directions  for  exercises; 
but  the  student  must  do  his  own  practicing ;  he  must  actu- 
ally make  speeches  as  directed.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  best  way  to  learn  to  speak  is  by  daily  lessons 
under  the  direct,  personal  guidance  of  a  teacher  of  the 
art.  But  if  a  student  who  cannot  follow  the  ideal  course 
will  carefully  carry  out  the  written  directions  to  be  found 
in  these  lessons,  he  ought  steadily  to  improve.     If  he 


4  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

perseveres,  there  will  be  no  limits  to  his  attainments 
save  those  set  by  his  own  general  capacity.  The  ancients 
had  a  saying  which  is  true,  *'The  poet  is  born,  but  the 
orator  is  made."  By  patient  j^ractice,  you  can  make  of 
yourself  a  successful  speaker. 

In  order  that  the  student  may  have  a  general  idea 
of  the  development  of  effective  speech,  we  shall  enumerate 
the  broader  requirements  for  success. 

Qualities  of  Good  kSpeakixg  to  be  Developed 

1.  Clear  .Oi:ganizafion  of  the  ideas  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker  is  the  first  necessity.  The  speaker  has  an  object 
to  accomplish  by  his  speech  and  he  selects  ideas  and 
gi'oups  them  so  that  they  will  be  best  understood  and  re- 
tained by  the  audience  which  will  act  upon  them. 

3.  Retention  of  the  Well-Organized  Ideas  During  De- 
livery is  next  necessary.  This  is  related  to  self-posses- 
sion, ease,  and  confidence. 

3.  Mastery  of  Language. — Even  though  the  ideas  may 
be  clear  and  well  organized  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker, 
he  must  have  a  large  vocabulary  and  skill  in  the  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words  to  express  his  ideas. 

4.  Technical  Control  of  Voice  in  Speech  and  of  Body 
in  Gesture. — Some  men  cannot  speak  for  more  than  a 
few  minutes  without  becoming  hoarse  or  having  their 
voices  "break."  Their  voices  may  be  monotonous  and 
unexpressive  or  weak,  without  carrying  power.  Their 
gestures  may  also  be  awkward.  Such  deficiencies  must 
be  overcome. 

All  these  excellencies  cannot  be  attained  at  once.  The 
lessons  begin  with  the  matter  of  clear  thinking  and  the 
organization  of  ideas. 


THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  IDEAS  6 

LESSON  1 
the  organization  of  ideas 

Logical  Grouping  of  Ideas 

Not  all  tlie  ideas  wliicli  fill  our  minds  are  clear.  Fur- 
thermore, tliey  are  not,  as  a  rule,  organized  in  logical 
groups.  If  we  wish  to  use  some  of  them  as  speech  mate- 
rial, they  must  be  clear  and  well  arranged.  When  a  man 
plans  to  make  a  speech,  he  draws  upon  the  full  stock  of 
his  mind,  but  he  carefully  tests  his  information  to  see  if 
it  will  have  weight  with  his  audience,  and  he  arranges 
it  in  the  most  convenient  manner  for  their  understanding. 
Let  us  illustrate.  If  I  were  to  ask  you  suddenly  to  tell 
me  immediately  all  your,  ideas  about  trade  unions,  a 
great  unorganized  number  of  impressions  would  seek 
haphazard  expression.  You  might  say:  "Labor  unions 
start  strikes ;  sometimes  there  is  disorder  and  even  blood- 
shed ;  they  have  walking  delegates ;  I  know  a  union  man 
who  received  financial  help  from  his  organization  wfeen 
he  was  ill ;  unions  try  to  get  more  pay  for  their  members ; 
there  is  a  local  chapter  of  the  building  trades  in  my  neigh- 
borhood ;  I  visited  one  of  their  meetings  once ;  unions  try 
to  get  an  eight-hour  day,  etc."  But  if  you  were  given 
some  time  for  reflection,  you  would  organize  your 
thoughts  somewhat  as  follows : 

1.  Wliat  labor  unions  are:     They  are  organizations  of 

laborers  for  mutual  protection  and  improvement. 

2.  What  they  seek  to  accomplish  among  their  members: 

(a)  social  improvement,  (b)  sick  benefit,  (c)  life  in- 
-    surance. 


6  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

3.  What  they  seek  to  exact  from  the  employer:    (a) 

shorter  hours,  (b)  better  pay,  (c)  better  working 
conditions,  such  as  ventilation,  safeguarded  ma- 
chines, clean  rooms,  etc.,  (d)  exclusion  from  thv 
shop  of  non-union  men. 

4.  Results  of  unionism:  (a)  good  results,  (b)  bad  results, 

etc.,  (c)  means  they  use  to  accomplish  their  objects. 

5.  Our  consequent  attitude  towards  unions. 

Benefits  of  Grouping  Ideas 

Such  an  arrangement  or  organization  of  thoughts  does 
three  things.  First,  it  insures  a  thorough  and  clear  grasp 
of  each  idea  by  the  speaker.  We  often  let  hazy  and  un- 
trustworthy impressions  hold  sway  in  our  careless  think- 
ing of  every-day  life.  However,  if  an  idea  is  to  be  put 
into  an  organized  plan,  the  very  act  of  classifying  it 
makes  us  inspect  it  more  closely.  Therefore,  careful, 
organized  thinking  about  a"  topic  leads  to  a  clearer 
understanding  and  approval  of  every  idea  involved. 
Second,  the  plan  puts  the  speech  in  an  order  easy  for  the 
audience  to  grasp  and  retain.  Ideas  thrown  out  ha]j- 
hazard  do  not  form  part  of  a  well-arranged  whole ;  they 
are  confusing.  Certainly  all  cannot  be  remembered. 
Third,  the  organization  helps  the  speaker  himself  to 
stick  to  his  topic  and  to  develop  all  of  it. 

Exercise  to  Secure  Organization  of  Ideas 

To  acquire  the  ability  to  organize  readily,  follow  the 
directions  of  this  lesson  most  carefully,  one  step  at  a 
Ihne  before  proceeding  to  the  next.  Read  the  whole 
h'sson  through  before  you  attem])!  any  of  the  exercises 
suggested. 


THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  IDEAS  7 

1.  Eead   this    passage    from   the    speech    which    Henry 

Ward  Beecher  delivered  in  Liverpool: 

There  are  two  dominant  races  in  modern  history:  the  Ger- 
manic and  the  Romanic  races.  The  Germanic  races  tend  to  per- 
sonal hberty,  to  a  sturdy  individualism,  to  civil  and  pohtical 
liberty.  The  Romanic  race  tends  to  absolutism  in  government; 
it  is  clannish ;  it  loves  chieftains ;  it  develops  a  people  that 
crave  strong  and  showy  governments  to  support  and  plan  for 
them.  The  Anglo-Saxon  race  belongs  to  the  great  German 
family  and  is  a  fair  exponent  of  its  peculiarities.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  carries  self-government  and  self-development  with  him 
wherever  he  goes.  He  has  popular  government  and  popular 
INDUSTRY ;  for  the  eifects  of  a  generous  civil  liberty  are  not 
seen  a  whit  more  plainly  in  the  good  order,  in  the  intelligence 
and  in  the  virtue  of  self-governing  people  than  in  their  amazing 
enterprise  and  the  scope  and  power  of  their  industry.  The 
power  to  create  riches  is  just  as  much  a  part  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
virtues  as  the  power  to  create  good  order  and  social  safety. 

Now^  read  it  again. 

2.  Turn    this    page    over    so    that   you   cannot    see    the 

passage  and  write  in  your  own  words  the  ideas 
which  Beecher  conveyed  to  his  English  audience. 
Do  this  even  though  the  composition  may  be  very 
imperfect. 

3.  Now  read  the  passage  again  with  this  plan  in  mind. 

Beecher  develops  three  ideas:  (1)  The  character- 
istics of  the  Germanic  races,  (2)  the  characteristics 
of  the  Romanic  races,  (3)  the  way  the  Anglo-Saxon 
carries  the  Germanic  idea  into  industry  as  well  as 
government. 

4.  Consulting  the  following  notes,  once  more  write  the 

composition,  in  your  own  words.     The  notes  are  to 


8  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKLXG 

help  you  retain  Beeclier's  ideas  but  not  his  words 
or  forms  of  expression. 
I.  Germanic  Races.  II.  Romanic  Races. 

1.  Personal  liberty.  1.  Love  chieftains. 

2.  Individualism.  2.  Clannish. 

3.  Civil  and  political  3.  Absolutism  and  showj 

liberty.  government. 

III.  The  Anglo-Saxon  belongs  to  the  Germanic  group 
and  shows  its  characteristics  in  industry  as  well 
as  in  government. 
5.  Take  the  following  more  general  outline.     Memorize 
it  and  then  speak  the  development.     In  your  oral 
amplification,  do  not  try  to  remember  words  which 
Beecher  used  before.    Merely  keep  your  three  ideas 
in  mind  and  develop  them  in  the   same  way  you 
would  make  clear  any  thought  of  your  own  in  con- 
versation.   Outline : 

I.  Characteristics  of  the  Germanic  Races. 
II.  Characteristics  of  the  Romanic  Races. 
III.  Place  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

AVlien  you  make  your  oral  development,  it  is  well  to 
have  a  real  audience.  If  you  could  get  a  group  to  listen 
to  you,  it  would  be  well.  Or  in  conversation  with  some 
friend  you  might  refer  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  quote 
the  ideas  of  Beecher.  You  might  also  speak  your  ideas 
out  loud  in  a  room,  by  yourself,  but  Ix'fore  a  mirror.  In 
this  case,  do  not  repeat  or  make  false  starts  and  go  all 
over  again  when  displeased  with  a  word.  Go  right  ahead 
without  a  l)reak,  no  matter  how  imperfect  the  perform- 
ance is.  Tli(M-e  is  no  harm  in  going  over  the  whole  orally 
many  times,  l)ut  it  is  undesiraWo  to  l)reak  off  in  the 
middk'. 


THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  IDEAS  9 

Exercise  in  Original  Analysis  for  Thought  Groups 

Read  the  following  i)iiragraplis  from  Henry  W.  Grady's 
"The  New  South"  (delivered  before  the  New  England 
Society,  December  22,  1886)  and  make  your  own  top- 
ical outline.  Then  write  your  own  complete  expression 
of  these  same  ideas.  Preserve  all  of  these  exercises 
carefully  in  your  notebook.  Also  practice  oral  amplifi- 
cation of  a  memorizeil  outline.  Follow  directions  given 
in  the  preceding  exercise. 

Under  the  old  regime,  the  negroes  were  slaves  to  the  South ; 
the  South  was  a  slave  to  the  system.  The  old  plantation,  with 
its  simple  police  regulations  and  its  feudal  habits,  was  the  only 
type  possible  under  slavery.  Thus  was  gathered  in  the  hands  of 
a  splendid  and  ehivalric  oligarchy  the  substance  that  should 
have  been  diffused  among  the  people — as  the  rich  blood,  under 
certain  artificial  conditions  is  gathered  at  the  heart,  filling  that 
with  affluent   rapture  but  leaving  the.  body  chill  and  colorless. 

The  old  South  rested  everything  on  slavery  and  agriculture, 
unconscious  that  these  could  neither  give  nor  maintain  healthy 
growth.  The  new  South  presents  a  perfect  Democracy,  the 
oligarchs  leading  in  the  popular  movement, — a  social  system 
compact  and  closely  knitted,  less  splendid  at  the  surface  but 
stronger  at  the  core ;  a  hundred  farms  for  every  plantation ; 
fifty  homes  for  every  palace  and  (instead  of  agriculture  alone) 
a  diversified  industry  that  meets  the  complex  needs  of  this 
complex  age. 

In  making  your  notes,  be  sure  to  get  the  central 
thought — the  contrast  between  the  old  South  and  the 
new  South.  In  your  development,  do  not  make  a  running- 
contrast;  rather  treat  the  old  South  fully,  di'op  it,  and 
then  take  up  the  new  South  for  complete  treatment. 
Note  the  following  difficult,  running  contrast,  a  form  of 


10  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

composition  which  shoukl  not  be  attempted  by  the  inex- 
perienced speaker. 

Talent  is  something,  but  tact  is  everything.  Talent  is  serious, 
sober,  grave  and  respectable;  tact  is  all  that  and  more  too.  It 
is  not  a  sixth  sense,  but  it  is  the  life  of  all  the  five.  *  *  * 
Talent  is  power,  tact  is  skill;  talent  is  weight,  tact  is  momen- 
tum ;  talent  knows  what  to  do,  tact  knoAvs  how  to  do  it ;  talent 
makes  a  man  respectable,  tact  makes  him  respected;  talent  is 
wealth,  tact  is  ready  money. — From  the  London  Atlas. 

Complete  the  Discussion  of  Each  Topic 

Such  a  running  contrast  is  not  the  characteristic  treat- 
ment of  a  speaker;  it  is  rather  the  product  of  a  writer 
wdio  has  time  to  meditate  and  arrange  w^ords — even  to 
erase  and  rearrange.  Most  speakers  would  give  a  rounded 
idea  of  tact  first,  then  a  thorough  exposition  of  talent. 
The  contrast  might  be  driven  home  by  a  few  additional 
remarks.  There  are  some  master  speakers  wdio  might 
carry  the  contrast  along,  but  such  a  task  is  too  difficult 
for  the  beginner.  His  rule  should  be  the  clear  develop- 
ment of  one  idea  at  a  time  and  an  orderly  arrangement 
of  those  ideas  in  proper  sequence. 

Also,  the  audience  gets  more  out  of  the  simpler  and 
easier  treatment.  A  speech  like  the  passage  above  leaves 
them  with  the  impression  that  tact  and  talent  are  con- 
trasted and  that  the  speaker  accomx^lished  a  brilliant 
feat;  but  they  do  not  carry  away  a  satisfactory  notion 
of  the  nature  of  either  tact  or  talent.  The  development 
of  one  idea  at  a  time  makes  for  clearness  and  force 
of  impression. 


THE  ORGANIZATION  OP^  IDEAS  11 

Develop  One  Idea  at  a  Time 

Observe,  in  the  following-  x)assage  from  Abraham  Lin- 
coln's Eulogy  of  Henry  Clay  (delivered  July  16,  1852, 
in  the  State  House  at  Springfield,  Illinois),  that  one  idea 
is  taken  up  at  a  time  and  developed  fully.  Furthermore, 
nothing  is  introduced  which  does  not  contribute  to  the 
amplification  of  the  thought  under  immediate  considera- 
tion. It  is  just  as  important  to  keep  out  distracting  mat- 
ter as  it  is  to  put  in  that  which  contributes  to  the  direct 
expression  of  the  central  idea.  A  star  is  printed  at  the 
beginning  of  each  idea  that  Lincoln  amplified. 

*  The  spell,  the  long  enduring  spell  with  which  the  souls  of 
men  were  bound  to  him,  is  a  miracle.  Who  can  compass  it? 
It  is  probably  true  he  owed  his  preeminence  to  no  one  quality, 
but  to  a  fortunate  combination  of  several.  He  was  surpass- 
ingly eloquent;  but  many  eloquent  men  fail  utterly,  and  they 
are  not,  as  a  class,  generally  successful.  His  judgment  was 
excellent;  but  many  men  of  good  judgment  live  and  die 
unnoticed.  His  will  was  indomitable ;  but  this  quality  often 
secures  to  its  owner  nothmg  better  than  a  character  for  useless 
obstinacy.  These,  then,  were  Mr.  Clay's  leading  qualities.  No 
one  of  them  is  very  uncommon;  but  all  together  are  rarely 
combined  in  a  single  individual,  and  this  is  probably  the  reason 
why  such  men  as  Henry  Clay  are  so  rare  in  the  world. 

*  Mr.  Clay 's  eloquence  did  not  consist,  as  many  fine  speci- 
mens of  eloquence  do,  of  tropes  and  figures,  of  antitheses  and 
elegant  arrangement  of  words  and  sentences,  but  rather  of  that 
deeply  earnest  and  impassioned  tone  and  manner  which  can 
proceed  only  from  great  sincerity,  and  a  thorough  conviction 
in  the  speaker  of  the  justice  and  importance  of  his  cause.  This 
it  is  that  truly  touches  the  chords  of  sympathy;  and  those  who 
heard  Mr.  Clay  never  failed  to  be  moved  by  it,  or  ever  after- 
ward forgot  the  impression.  All  his  efforts  were  made  for 
practical  effect.    He  never  spoke  merely  to  be  heard.    He  never 


12  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

delivered  a  Fourth  of  July  oration  or  a  eulogy  on  an  occasion 
like  this.  *  As  a  politician  or  statesman,  no  one  Avas  so  habitu- 
ally careful  to  avoid  all  sectional  ground.  Whatever  he  did, 
he  did  for  the  whole  country.  In  the  construction  of  his 
measures,  he  ever  carefully  surveyed  every  part  of  the  field  and 
duly  weighed  every  conflicting  interest.  Feeling  as  he  did,  and 
as  the  truth  surely  is.  that  the  world's  best  hope  depended  on 
tho  continued  Union  of  these  States,  he  was  ever  jealous  of  and 
watchful  for  whatever  might  have  the  slightest  tendency  to 
separate  them. 

*  ]\Ir.  Clay 's  predominant  sentiment,  from  first  to  last,  was  a 
deep  devotion  to  the  cause  of  human  liberty — a  strong  sympathy 
with  the  oppressed  everywhere,  and  an  ardent  wish  for  their 
elevation.  With  him  this  was  a  primary  and  controlling  pas- 
sion. Subsidiary  to  this  was  the  conduct  of  his  whole  life. 
He  loved  his  country  partly  because  it  was  his  own  country,  and 
mostly  because  it  was  a  free  country;  and  he  burned  with  a 
zeal  for  its  advancement,  prosperity  and  glory,  because  he  saw 
in  such  the  advancement,  prosperity  and  glory  of  human  liberty, 
human  right  and  human  nature.  lie  desired  the  prosperity  of 
his  countrymen  partly  because  they  were  his  countrymen,  but 
chiefly  to  show  to  the  world  that  free  men  could  lie  prosperous. 

.Exercise  of  Amplifying  Simple  Plans  of  Speech 

In  order  to  get  practice  in  the  amplification  of  a  gen- 
eral thought  by  the  grouping  of  subordinate  thoughts 
around  it,  amplify  orally  the  following  outlines — all  or 
such  as  interest  you.  It  might  be  well  to  jot  down  all 
your  information  on  the  subjects  before  trying  to  or- 
ganize the  matter  according  to  the  outlines  here  sug- 
gested. Then  undertake  the  oral  development  as  de- 
scribed l)efore.  Sul)stitute  outlines  of  your  own  if  you 
prefer. 

1.  Washington  was  an  ideal  American  gentleman, 
(a)  He  was  courageous. 


THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  IDEAS  13 

(b)  He  was  patient. 

(c)  He  was  courteous. 

(d)  He  was  sagacious. 

(e)  He  was  patriotic. 

(f )  He  was  unselfish. 

2.  The  Government  should  own  the  railroads. 

(a)  The  whole  people  should  j^rofit  by  the  use  of 

the  highways. 

(b)  Shippers  and  passengers  would  get  fairer  treat- 

ment. 

(c)  Better  service  would  be  rendered. 

(d)  Money   could  be   made   to   pay   governmental 

expenses. 

3.  Government  ownership  of  railroads  would  be  unde- 

sirable. 

(a)  Railroading  is  a  private  business  which  should 

be  left  to  the  enterprise  of  individuals. 

(b)  Government  enteri3rises  foster  corruption  and 

graft. 

(c)  There  would  be  no  incentive  to   improve  the 

service. 

(d)  There  would  be  a  deficit  which  would  have  to 

l)e  met  by  heavier  taxes  upon  the  people. 

4.  Labor. 

(a)  What  is  labor? 

(b)  The  necessity  for  labor. 

(c)  The  unpleasantness  of  labor. 

(d)  The  blessings  of  labor. 

Observation  and  Criticism  of  the  Grouping  of 
Other  Speakers 

At  the  next  meeting  you  attend  where  someone  speaks 
at  length  (as  in  church,  political  meeting,  or  club  meet- 


14  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ing)  take  notes  of  the  address.  Put  down  the  headiHgs 
or  topics  which  are  treated  in  the  address.  Then  ob- 
serve how  the  speaker  develops  his  topics.  Does  he 
clearly  hold  one  idea  till  it  is  fully  expounded!  Are  all 
his  ideas  clear  f  Do  they  follow  each  other  in  a  natural 
order?  AVhat  faults  in  grouping  does  the  speaker  have? 
Is  the  speech  so  well  organized  that  you  can  repeat  its 
essential  message  in  your  own  words  from  the  notes  you 
take?  This  criticism  of  other  speakers  is  a  great  help 
toward  self -improvement. 

Within  the  next  three  or  four  weeks,  if  you  have  the 
opportunity,  prepare  carefully  a  detailed  report  of  such 
a  speech  which  you  heard.  Append  the  outline  and  your 
criticism.     This  exercise  is  optional. 

General  Suggestions 

Get  the  Habit  of  Systematic  Thouglit. — You  must  cul- 
tivate the  habit  of  orderly  and  systematic  thought. 
Carry  this  into  your  daily  life.  If  you  read  the  news- 
paper, see  if  the  writer  of  the  article  you  are  reading 
holds  to  his  topic  or  wanders.  Analyze  the  magazine 
articles  you  read.  Even  in  conversation,  organize  your 
expressions.  If  you  say  that  President  Wilson  was  right 
in  delaying  intervention  in  Mexico,  be  able  to  amplify 
thus: — because  (a)  reason  one,  (b)  reason  two,  and  (c) 
reason  three.  Do  not  have  slovenly  opinions.  Crystal- 
lize all  your  thoughts.  '  Put  them  to  the  test  of  organiza- 
tion. 

Indulge  in  Much  Oral  Practice. — You  nuist  indulge  in 
a  great  deal  of  oral  expression.  Speak  in  large  gather- 
ings whenever  the  opportunity  arises.  Always  have 
your  thoughts  organized ;  do  not  let  them  come  out  in 


HE  ORGANIZATION  OF  IDKAS  15 

"^  chance  order  or  no  order  at  all.  At  any  rate  do  niucli 
oral  practice  alone.  No  one  ever  became  an  effective 
speaker  without  actually  speaking. 

Assignment  of  Work  for  Five  Days 

The  written  exorcises  in  tliis  entire  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keej)  copies  of  tlie  written  exer- 
cises in  your  notel)ook. 

First  Day. — You  have  read  through  the  first  lesson.  Now  study 
it  again  carefully,  mastering  its  contents.  Do  not  attempt 
any  of  the  special  exercises  in  the  first  or  second  reading. 

Second  Day. — Write  the  exercises  in  connection  with  the 
Beecher  speech  (p.  7),  and  criticize  carefully  your  own  work  : 
then  rewrite  it.  Practice  in  your  own  words  the  oral  re- 
production of  the  Beecher  speech. 

Third  Day. — Do  the  exercises  in  connection  with  the  Grady 
speech  (p.  9).  Prepare  carefull}^  the  outline  and  amplifica- 
tion of  the  Grady  speech  and  criticize  and  rewrite  as  sug- 
gested in  the  work  for  the  second  day. 

Fourth  Day. — Fill  out  orally  the  outlines  given  which  begin 
with  the  character  of  Washington  (p.  12).  Make  similar 
outlines  for  matters  of  current  interest  which  you  read  ahout 
and  concerning  which  you  have  formed  opinions. 

Fifllt  Day. — Outline  and  criticize  some  speech  you  have  heard. 
Remember  that  criticism  means  appreciation  as  well  as 
adverse  comment. 


It  is  hoped  that  this  lesson  has  impressed  you  with 
the  value  of  organized  thought  and  given  you  suggestions 
which  will  start  you  in  the  direction  of  a  better  organiza- 
tion of  your  own  thoughts.  The  second  lesson  will  take  a 
nominating  speech  for  its  model  and  show  how  a  long 
speech  is  made  up  of  certain  great  divisions,  each  one 
of  which  contains  its  thought  groups. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
liis  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  suggestire  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  tlie 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

I.  State  what  efficienc}'-  is.  Give  tlie  best  illustration  of  it 
you  know. 

— 2.  Why  is  effective  a  better  word  than  efficient  to  apply  to 
public  speaking? 

3.  What  is  the  most  effective  speech  you  have  ever  heard? 
Why? 

4.  What  benefits  of  "grouping  ideas"  are  discussed  in  the 
lesson  ? 

5.  AVhat  are  the  four  qualities  of  good  speaking  the  student 
should  develop  ? 

6.  AVhat  is  meant  by  the  expression  "develop  one  idea  at  a 
time ' '  ? 

7.  What  does  Beecher's  paragraph  on  "The  Germanic  and  the 
Romanic  Races"  illustrate  as  to  the  grouping  of  ideas? 

8.  What  four  ideas  does  Lincoln  "develop  one  at  a  time" 
about  Henry  Clay? 

9.  What  are  the  main  headings  of  an  address  you  have  re- 
cently heard  ? 

10.  In  Henry  W.  Grady's  paragraph,  what  are  the  chief  points 
of  contrast  between  the  Old  and  the  Xew  South? 

II.  What  ideas  have  you  about  Clay's  eloquence,  from  Liii- 
eoln  's  paragraph  ? 

12.  In  a  conversation  about  "The  kinds  of  men  I  work  with,'' 
what  would  be  the  main  lines  of  your  talk  ? 

13.  If  you  desire  more  practice,  outline  for  a  short  talk  one  of 
the  following  topics:  Workmanship,  Reliability,  Woman's  Suf- 
frage, High  License,  Books  I  Like  to  Read,  My  Job,  My  Em- 
ployer, My  Ambition, 

16 


LESSON  2 

THE  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  A  SPEECH.  THE  DETAILED 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  ORGANIZATION 

OF  A  NOMINATING  SPEECH 


All  but  the  very  simplest  messages  which  we  can 
deliver  in  a  speech  are  made  up  of  several  parts.  This 
was  insisted  upon  in  the  first  lesson  when  we  discussed 
the  proper  organization  of  those  parts.  A  message  was 
considered  well  organized  if  the  nature  of  each  part  was 
clearly  and  forcefully  presented  and  the  relation  of  each 
part  to  the  whole  was  made  evident.  Consequently  we 
concluded  that  it  is  most  necessary  that  we  make  a  care- 
ful analysis  to  determine  just  how  our  thoughts  hang- 
together  before  we  try  to  impress  them  upon  other  people. 

The  Body  of  a  Speech 

Now  let  us  suppose  that  you  have  a  message  to  deliver 
which  summed  up  is  simply  this :  The  Democratic  Party 
ought  to  nominate  Woodrow  Wilson  for  president  once 
more.  Upon  analysis  you  discover  ten  good  reasons  for 
this  belief.  You  pass  all  these  reasons  in  review  before 
you  and  find  that  they  are  well  founded.    Then  you 

17 


18  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

organize  them  so  that  they  Avill  form  a  well-arranged 
group,  easy  of  comprehension  and  forceful  in  its  combined 
strength.  An  amplification  of  this  will  constitute  the 
body  of  a  speech  nominating  your  candidate  for  the  office 
of  president. 

The  Introduction 

Yet  that  does  not  exhaust  all  the  planning  for  such  a 
speech,  for  you  do  not  always  wish  to  plunge  imme- 
diately into  the  bod^^  of  an  address.  The  audience  may 
not  be  ready  to  receive  it.  They  may  be  so  unfavorably 
prejudiced  against  you  that  they  will  not  listen  to  your 
message  till  you  woo  them  and  win  their  favor.  They 
may  have  some  preconceived  notions  against  your  candi- 
date or  the  platform  upon  which  he  expects  to  stand.  In 
fact,  a  thousand  and  one  untoward  circumstances  may 
exist  which  will  make  necessary  some  preliminary  efforts 
to  incline  them  to  an  impartial  hearing  of  what  may 
be  said.  This  portion  of  the  general  speech  is  called  the 
introduction.  Its  function  is  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  most  favorable  recejjtion  of  the  message  proper. 
There  are  other  things  besides  prejudice  and  unfriendly 
feeling  which  stand  in  the  way  of  a  good  reception  of 
the  message,  but  we  shall  not  enumerate  them  in  this 
lesson.  Whatever  they  are,  the  introduction  is  used  to 
clear  them  away. 

The  Conclusion- 

Besides  the  introduction  and  body,  a  speech  may  have 
a  third  part,  the  conclusion.    The  i)urpose  of  the  conclu- 


GENERAL  PLAN:  NOMLNATLXG  SPEECH  19 

sion  is  to  gather  together  the  combined  force  of  all  the 
parts  of  the  body  of  the  speech  and  to  drive  home  or  apply 
them.  It  has  been  said  that  every  speech — no  matter  how 
long  or  how  short,  no  matter  what  the  subject  or  the  pur- 
pose— must  have  three  parts:  an  opening  or  introduc- 
tion, a  body  or  argument,  and  a  conclusion.  This  is  not 
true,  for  sometimes  the  situation  is  favorable  to  an  imme- 
diate presentation  of  the  message  without  preliminary 
words  and  sometimes  the  speaker  prefers  the  audience 
to  draw  its  own  conclusions  and  to  make  its  own  applica- 
tions. Yet  it  is  well  for  the  student  to  know  the  nature 
and  use  of  all  these  parts  so  that  he  can  employ  them 
when  desirable. 

We  shall  later  make  a  detailed  study  of  the  intro- 
duction and  conclusion  and  discuss  when  they  may  be 
omitted.  Just  now  we  shall  assume  that  a  nominating 
speech  has  these  initial  and  terminal  parts  while  we 
attend  primarily  to  the  nature  of  the  material  used  in  the 
body  of  the  speech.  Our  study  in  this  lesson  will  be  the 
organization  of  the  body  of  a  nominating  speech. 

Conklixg's  Speech  Nominating  Grant  for  President, 

1880 

We  take  as  our  model  Eoscoe  Conkling's  nomination 
of  General  Grant  for  president,  in  the  Chicago  Conven- 
tion of  the  Republican  Party,  1880.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  Grant  served  as  president  for  two  terms  (1868- 
1876).  He  then  traveled  around  the  w^orld,  visiting  all 
the  civilized  nations  and  receiving  the  homage  of  the 
greatest  men  and  rulers  of  the  earth.  Mr.  Conkling 
nominated  him  to  run  for  a  third  time  in  the  following 


20  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

speech.    Read  the  speech  slowly  and  thoughtfully,  trying 
to  sense  its  structure. 

When  asked  what  State  he  hails  from, 

Our  sole  reply  shall  be, 
He  comes  from  Appomattox, 

And  its  famous  apple-tree. 

In  obedience  to  instructions  I  should  never  dare  to  disregard, 
expressing  also,  my  own  firm  convictions — I  rise  to  propose  a 
nomination  with  which  the  country  and  the  Republican  part}' 
can  grandly  win.  The  election  before  us  is  to  be  the  Austerlitz 
of  American  politics.  It  will  decide,  for  many  years,  whether 
the  country  shall  be  Republican  or  Cossack.  The  supreme  need 
of  the  hour  is  not  a  candidate  who  can  carry  ^Michigan.  All 
Republicans  can  do  that.  The  need  is  not  of  a  candidate  who  is 
popular  in  the  Territories,  because  they  have  no  vote.  The  need 
is  of  a  candidate  who  can  carry  doubtful  States. 

Not  the  doubtful  States  of  the  North  alone,  but  doubtful 
States  of  the  South,  w^hich  we  have  heard,  if  I  understand  it 
aright,  ought  to  take  little  or  no  part  here,  because  the  South 
has  nothing  to  give,  but  everything  to  receive.  No,  gentlemen, 
the  need  that  presses  upon  the  conscience  of  this  Convention 
is  of  a  candidate  who  can  carry  doubtful  States  both  North  and 
South.  And  believing  that  he,  more  surely  than  any  other  man, 
can  carry  New  York  against  any  opponent,  and  can  carry  not 
only  the  North,  but  several  States  of  the  South,  Neiv  York  is  for 
UUjsses  S.  Grant.  Never  defeated  in  peace  or  in  war,  his  name 
is  the  most  illustrious  borne  by  living  man. 

His  services  attest  his  greatness,  and  the  country — nay,  the 
world — knows  them  by  heart.  His  fame  was  earned  not  alone 
in  things  written  and  said,  but  by  the  arduous  greatness  of  things 
done.  And  perils  and  emergencies  will  search  in  vain  in  the 
future,  as  they  have  searched  in  vain  in  the  past,  for  any  other 
on  whom  the  nation  leans  with  such  confidence  and  trust.  Never 
having  had  a  policy  to  enforce  against  the  will  of  the  people, 
he  never  betrayed  a  cause  or  a  friend,  and  the  people  will  never 
desert  nor  betray  him.    Standing  on  the  highest  eminence  of 


GENERAL  PLAN:  NOMINATING  SPEECH  21 

human  distint'tion,  modest,  tirm,  simi)le  and  self-poised,  having 
filled  all  lauds  with  his  renown,  he  has  seen  not  only  the  high- 
born and  the  titled,  but  the  poor  and  the  lowly  in  the  uttermost 
ends  of  the  earth,  rise  and  uncover  before  him.  He  has  studied 
the  needs  and  the  defects  of  many  systems  of  government,  and 
he  has  returned  a  better  American  than  ever,  with  a  wealth  of 
knowledge  and  experience  added  to  the  hard  common  sense 
which  shone  so  conspicuously  in  all  the  fierce  light  that  beat  upon 
"liim  during  sixteen  years,  the  most  trying,  the  most  portentous, 
the  most  perilous  in  the  nation's  history. 

Vilified  and  reviled,  ruthlessly  aspersed  by  unnumbered 
presses,  not  in  other  lands  but  in  his  own,  assaults  upon  him 
have  seasoned  and  strengthened  his  hold  on  the  public  heart. 
Calumny's  ammunition  has  all  been  exploded;  the  powder  has 
all  been  burned  once ;  its  force  is  spent ;  and  the  name  of  Grant 
will  glitter  a  bright  and  imperishable  star  in  the  diadem  of  the 
republic  when  those  who  have  tried  to  tarnish  that  name  have 
moldered  in  forgotten  graves,  and  when  their  memories  and  their 
epitaphs  have  vanished  utterly. 

Never  elated  by  success,  never  depressed  by  adversity,  he  has 
ever,  in  peace  as  in  war,  shown  the  genius  of  common  sense. 
The  terms  he  prescribed  for  Lee's  surrender  foreshadowed  the 
wisest  prophecies  and  principles  of  true  reconstruction.  Victor 
in  the  greatest  war  of  modern  times,  he  quickly  signalized  his 
aversion  to  war  and  his  love  of  peace  by  an  arbitration  of  inter- 
nal disputes,  which  stands  as  the  wisest,  the  most  majestic  exam- 
ple of  its  kind  in  the  world's  diplomacy.  When  inflation,  at 
the  height  of  its  popularity  and  frenzy,  had  swept  both  Houses 
of  Congress,  it  was  the  veto  of  Grant  which,  single  and  alone, 
overthrew  expansion  and  cleared  the  way  for  specie  resumption. 
To  him,  immeasurably  more  than  to  any  other  man,  is  due  the 
fact  that  every  paper  dollar  is  at  last  as  good  as  gold. 

With  him  as  our  leader  we  shall  have  no  defensive  campaign. 
No!  We  shall  have  nothing  to  explain  away.  AVe  shall  have 
no  apologies  to  make.  The  shafts  and  the  arrows  have  all  been 
aimed  at  him,  and  they  lie  broken  and  harmless  at  his  feet. 

Life,  liberty  and  property  will  find  a  safeguard  in  him. 
When  he  said  of  the  colored  men  in  Florida,  "Wherever  I  am, 


22  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

they  may  come  also" — when  he  so  said,  he  meant  that,  had  he 
the  power,  the  poor  dwellers  in  the  cabins  of  the  South  should 
no  longer  be  driven  in  terror  from  the  homes  of  their  childhood 
and  the  graves  of  their  murdered  dead.  When  he  refused  to 
see  Dennis  Kearney  in  California,  he  meant  that  communism, 
lawlessness  and  disorder,  although  it  might  stalk  high-headed  and 
dictate  law  to  a  whole  city,  would  always  find  a  foe  in  him. 
He  meant  that,  popular  or  unpopular,  he  would  hew  io  the  line 
of  right,  let  the  chips  fly  where  they  may. 

His  integrity,  his  common  sense,  his  courage,  his  unequaled 
experience,  are  the  qualities  offered  to  his  country.  The  only 
argument,  the  only  one  that  the  wit  of  man  or  the  stress  of  poli- 
tics has  devised  is  one  which  would  dumbfounder  Solomon, 
because  he  thought  there  was  nothing  new  under  the  sun.  Hav- 
ing tried  Grant  twice  and  found  him  faithful,  we  are  told  that 
we  must  not,  even  after  an  interval  of  years,  trust  him  again. 
My  countrymen !  my  country^men !  what  stultification  does  not 
such  a  fallacy  involve?  The  American  people  exclude  Jefferson 
Davis  from  public  trust.  Why  ?  why  ?  Because  he  was  the  arch- 
traitor  and  would-be  destroyer;  and  now  the  same  people  are 
asked  to  ostracize  Grant  and  not  to  trust  him.  Why?  why?  I 
repeat :  because  he  was  the  arch-preserver  of  his  country,  and 
because,  not  only  in  war,  but  twice  as  civil  magistrate,  he  gave 
his  highest,  noblest  efforts  to  the  republic.  Is  this  an  electioneer- 
ing juggle,  or  is  it  hypocrisy's  masquerade?  There  is  no  field 
of  human  activity,  responsibility,  or  reason  in  which  rational 
beings  object  to  an  agent  because  he  has  been  weighed  in  the 
balance  and  not  found  wanting.  There  is,  I  say,  no  department 
of  human  reason  in  which  sane  men  reject  an  agent  because  he 
has  had  experience,  making  him  exceptionally  competent  and  fit. 
From  the  man  who  shoes  your  horse,  to  the  lawyer  who  tries  your 
cause,  the  officer  who  manages  your  railway  or  your  mill,  the 
doctor  into  whose  hands  you  give  your  life,  or  the  minister  who 
seeks  to  save  your  soul,  what  man  do  you  reject  because  by  his 
works  you  have  known  liini  and  found  him  faithful  and  fit? 
What  makes  the  Presidential  office  an  exception  to  all  things 
else  in  the  common  sense  to  be  applied  to  selecting  its  incumbent  ? 
Who  dares — who  dares  to  put  fetters  on  that  free  choice  and 


GENERAL  PLAxX :  XO.MINATLXG  SPEECH  23 

judgment  which  is  the  birthright  of  the  American  people  ?  Can 
it  be  said  that  Grant  has  used  official  power  and  place  to  per- 
petuate his  termf  He  has  no  place,  and  official  power  has  not 
been  used  for  him.  Without  patronage  and  without  emissaries, 
without  committees,  without  bureaus,  without  telegraph  wires 
running  from  his  house  to  this  Convention,  or  running  from  his 
house  anywhere  else,  this  man  is  the  candidate  whose  friends 
Iiave  never  threatened  to  bolt  unless  this  Convention  did  as  they 
said.  He  is  a  Republican  who  never  wavers.  He  and  his  friends 
stand  by  the  creed  and  the  candidates  of  the  Republican  party. 
They  hold  the  rightful  rule  of  the  majority  as  the  very  essence 
of  their  faith,  and  they  mean  to  uphold  that  faith  against  not 
only  the  common  enemy,  but  against  the  charlatans,  jayhawkers, 
tramps  and  guerrillas — the  men  who  deploy  between  the  lines, 
and  forage  now  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other.  This  Conven- 
tion is  master  of  a  supreme  opportunity.  It  can  name  the  next 
President.  It  can  make  sure  of  his  election.  It  can  make  sure 
not  only  of  his  election,  but  of  his  certain  and  peaceful  inaugura- 
tion. IMore  than  all,  it  can  break  that  poAver  which  dominates 
and  mildews  the  South.  It  can  overthrow  an  organization 
whose  very  existence  is  a  standing  protest  against  progress. 

The  purpose  of  the  Democratic  party  is  spoils.  Its  very 
hope  of  existence  is  a  solid  South.  Its  success  is  a  menace  to 
order  and  prosperity.  I  say  this  Convention  can  overthrow  that 
power.  It  can  dissolve  and  emancipate  a  solid  South.  'It  can 
speed  the  nation  in  a  career  of  grandeur  eclipsing  all  past  achieve- 
ments. 

Gentlemen,  we  have  only  to  listen  above  the  din  and  look 
beyond  the  dust  of  an  hour  to  behold  the  Republican  party 
advancing  with  its  ensigns  resplendent  with  illustrious  achieve- 
ments, marching  to  certain  and  lasting  victory  with  its  greatest 
^larshal  at  its  head. 


Read  the  speech  again,  out  loud  witli  all  the  enthusiasm 
you  can  work  up.  If  possibh?,  read  it  to  friends  as  an 
example  of  convention  oratory. 

Now  let  us  consider  its  plan. 


24  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

A.  Introduction  (to  the  words  "grandly  win"),  merely 

to  attract  attention;  very  brief. 

B.  Body  of  the  Speech. 

1.  The  need  of  the  party :  to  carry  doubtful  states, 
will  be  met  by  Grant. 

2.  The  virtues  of  the  candidate. 

(a)  He  is  popular  with  all  classes. 

(b)  His  travels   and   studies   abroad  have   im- 

proved him. 

(c)  He  has  risen  superior  to  all  criticism. 

(d)  His  acts  show  calm,  common  sense;  policy 

of  peace ;  money  policy. 

(e)  He  makes  possible  an  aggressive  campaign. 

(f )  He  was  the  courageous  advocate  of  freedom 

on  several  occasions. 

3.  Objections  to  him  are  ridiculous. 

(a)  The  third-term  objection  is  counter  to  the 

practice  in  all  walks  of  life  where  experi- 
ence is  a  recommendation. 

(b)  Grant  never  used  the  power  of  place  or  pat- 

ronage to  get  this  nomination  or  election. 

C.  Conclusion   of   additional,   reenforced  enthusiasm. 

1.  Grant  is  the  great  Republican. 

2.  Opportunity    of    the    convention    to     name     a 

president. 

3.  Denunciation  of  Democrats. 

4.  Prophecy  of  victory. 

Tliis  speech  is  not  so  well  organized  as  it  might  be,  yet 
it  serves  very  well  as  a  model  of  enthusiastic  nomination. 
We  shall  now  make  a  model  plan  for  a  nominating  speech 
wliich  can  l)e  filled  in  on  almost  any  occasion  of  nomina- 
tion.    AVe  nnist  call  attention  to  one  marked  deviation 


GENERAL  PLAN:  N0:\IINAT1NG  SPEECH  25 

from  Coiikling's  plan.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  not  to  name 
the  candidate  till  well  on  in  the  speech.  Sometimes  it  is 
best  to  excite  curiosity  and  arouse  the  audience  so  that 
they  are  in  a  state  of  intense  expectation  when  at  last 
you  name  the  man.  Conkling  did  not  use  this  device, 
because  Grant  was  not  a  new  man  and  it  was  well  known 
that  Conkling  was  going  to  nominate  him.  But  in  most 
cases  it  is  well  to  describe  the  ideal  man  and  show  how 
such  a  candidate  will  meet  the  needs  of  the  hour ;  then  at 
the  climax  of  the  virtues  to  be  expected,  name  the  man 
who  has  them  all.  The  plan  which  we  therefore  suggest 
is  the  following: 

Type  Plan  for  Nominating  Speech 

A.  Introduction  (according  to  circumstances  that  arise 

at  the  time  of  delivery). 

B.  Body  of  the  Speech. 

1.  Need  of  the  party,  club,  or  organization. 

2.  The  general  characteristics  a  candidate  should 

have. 

(a)  Experience. 

(b)  Character. 

(c)  Popularity,  etc. 

3.  The    platform    he    will    stand    on.     What    he 

pledges  himself  to  do. 

4.  Name  him  who  has  all  these  in  the  highest  degree. 

5.  Objections  to  him,  if  any,  disposed  of.    Best  not 

mention  these  if  they  can  be  avoided.  Take  the 
defens'-ve  only  when  it  is  forced  on  you  by  the 
situation. 

6.  Eulogy  of  the  candidate. 

(a)  His  past  record. 

(b)  His  present  renown. 

(c)  His  excellent  qualities. 


/ 


J 


26  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

C.  Conclusion.  Prophecy  of  success,  advancement,  or 
victory  with  him  as  the  standard-bearer.  Lan- 
guage enthusiastic  and  treatment  rapid. 

Characteristic   Features   of   the   Nominating    Speech 
Style 

Notice  certain  features  in  the  style  of  the  nominating 
speech  which  spring  from  the  purpose  of  the  speaker  and 
the  occasion  on  wdiich  such  a  speech  is  delivered.  The 
meeting  is  one  for  quick  decision  rather  than  long  or 
careful  deliberation.  The  candidates  are  not  carefully 
discussed.  After  one  has  been  named,  there  is  no  system- 
atic testing  of  all  his  points  of  strength  and  weakness. 
No  one  cross-questions  the  nominator  to  see  if  his  claims 
are  just ;  no  debate  of  a  solid  character  is  carried  on. 
So  far  as  speaking  is  concerned,  all  that  takes  place  is  the 
favorable  naming  and  eulogizing  of  several  men  by  their 
friends.  To  be  sure,  there  may  be  some  quiet  managing 
on  the  floor  of  the  convention,  but  the  purpose  of  the 
nominating  speaker  is  to  bring  the  delegates  to  a  high 
point  of  enthusiasm.  He  seldom  offers  proof,  for  close 
reasoning  is  usually  incompatible  with  high  excitement. 
From  this  it  follows :  / 

1.  The  argTiments,  if  any,  must  be  short  and  crisp. 
There  is  no  time  for  labored  demonstration. 

2.  Striking  statements  form  the  major  part  of  the 
speech.  These  must  be  vivid.  Bold  figures  of  speech 
are  allowed.  Notice  ''Standing  on  the  highest  eminence 
of  human  distinction,  and  having  filled  all  lands  with 
his  renown,"  "The  ammunition  of  calumny  had  all  been 
exploded,"  ''General  Grant's  name  will  glitter  as  a 
bright  star  in  the  diadem  of  the  Republic,"  and  other 
sti'iking  figures. 


X 


GEMiixvAi^  lUAX:  XO:\riXATING  SPEECH  2'< 

3.  The  movement  must  be  rapid. 

4.  Each  sub-topic  must  be  carefully  worked  out  so  that 
no  false  or  blundering  step  will  be  made.  In  this  kind 
of  speech,  there  must  be  no  confusion,  repetition,  or  blur- 
ring of  the  brilliant  effect.  Furthermore,  the  amplitica- 
tion  of  each  topic  must  be  in  the  order  of  increasing 
importance.  The  crowning  glory  must  be  named  last  so 
as  to  draw  forth  applause.  Thus  the  whole  speech  is  a 
series  of  smaller  climaxes  with  a  great  one  at  the  naming 
of  the  candidate  and  a  very  great  one  at  the  end. 

DiEECTIONS  FOR   ORIGINAL  AVoRK 

A.  Select  one  or  more  of  the  following  subjects  for  a 
nominating  address. 

1.  Colonel  Goethals  as  the  first  governor  of  the 

Panama  Canal  zone;  delivered  before  the 
United  States  Senate. 

2.  A  neighbor  of  yours  as  candidate  for  your  party 

for  state  assemblyman ;  delivered  before  a  pri- 
mary gathering  in  your  district. 

3.  A  man  in  the  office  in  which  you  work  for  the 

position  of  general  manager ;  delivered  before 
the  board  of  directors  or  other  body  with  ap- 
pointing power.  Make  believe  you  are  a  mem- 
ber of  the  board  or  are  someone  else  who 
might  properly  make  such  a  nomination. 

4.  A  fellow  member  of  some  society  to  which  you 

belong  for  the  position  of  president  or  treas- 
urer, etc. ;  delivered  before  the  members  of  the 
society. 

5.  Theodore  Roosevelt  for  president;  delivered  be- 

fore the  national  convention  of  the  Progressive 
Party. 


28  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

6.  Any  man  for   president;   delivered   before  the 
jjroper  convention. 

B.  Make  a  note  of  all  the  ideas  you  can  gather  which 

would  contribute  material  for  the  speech.  This 
is  your  available  storehouse  of  subject  matter. 

C.  Plan  the  speech  by  grouping  the  matter  under  the 

general  heads  suggested  in  our  type  plan.  Ask 
yourself  "Just  what  points  will  reach  that  par- 
ticular audience!"  "What  will  influence  them 
so  that  they  will  agree  with  me?"  Throw  aside 
all  that  does  not  meet  your  needs  and  arrange  the 
rest  as  recommended.  Later  you  may  vary  from 
the  type  and  attempt  an  original  order,  but  at  first 
it  is  best  to  follow  the  model  form. 

D.  In  amplifying  the  various  points  in  the  plan,  use 

the  enthusiastic,  nominating  style  already  de- 
scribed. 

1.  Amplify  orally  with  the  plan  before  you. 

2.  If  you  can  do  it,  amplify  orally  with  no  notes 

in  hand  but  with  the  greater  sub-topics  memo- 
rized. This  must  be  done  sooner  or  later.  If 
you  do  not  succeed  at  first,  keep  on  trying 
Make  the  sijeech  simple  with  but  few  sub- 
divisions. When  you  can  retain  such  a  plan  in 
the  memory  and  develop  it  orally,  then  make 
the  next  one  more  elaborate. 

3.  Eeduce  your  amplification  to  writing. 

Assignment  of  Work 

The  written  exercist'^;  in  tliis  entire  lesson  should  he 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  eopies  of  the  wiitten  exer- 
cises in  your  notebook. 

First  Day. — You  luive  read  throuj^h  the  lesson.     Now  study  it 
again  careCulIy.  mastering  ils  contents.      Do  not  atttMnpt  any 


GENERAL  PLAN:  NOMINATLNG  SPEECH  29 

of  the  (.'xercises  until  after   the  second   reading.     Read   the 
Conkling-  speech  orally. 
Second  Day. — Write  a  criticism  of  the  Conkling  speech.     What 
do  you  like  about  it  ?     Is  there  anything  you  dislike  ?     Why 
does  he  devote  so  much  space  to  the  third-term  idea  1     Do  you 
think  it  is  wise  for  Conkling  to  speak  slurringly  of  the  Demo- 
crats ?     What  does  he  gain  by  the  verse  at  the  opening  ?     Tell 
why  the  first  sentence  is  effectively  written.     INIake  a  list  of 
the  references  to  definite  services,  like  ' '  terms  of  Lee 's  surren- 
der," "veto  of  expansion  in  currency." 
TJiird  Day. — Make  a  simple  outline  of  an  original  nominating 
speech,  taking  one  of  the  subjects  suggested  near  the  end  of 
this  lesson.     Write  out  the  speech.     Criticize  and  rewrite 
carefully. 
Fourth  Day. — Imagine  that  you  are  to  make  an  address  following 
the  points  in  your  outline.    Develop  them  orally,  as  if  talking 
to  an  audience.     Go  through  the  entire  outline  in  this  way, 
without  stopping  to  repeat  or  to  improve  any  parts. 
Fifth  Day. — If  you  contemplate  making  a  real  nominating  speech 
or  any  other  kind  of  speech,  prepare  your  outline  carefully 
as  suggested,  and  criticize  your  own  work  severely. 

Final  AYord 

In  making  these  speeches,  try  to  put  yourself  in  a  real 
situation.  Nominate  men  about  whom  you  know  and 
about  whom  you  are  enthusiastic.  In  practice,  throw 
yourself  fully  into  the  subject;  vividly  realize  the  occa- 
sion, living  it  all  out  in  imagination.  The  speaker  who  is 
thoroughly  filled  with  his  subject  and  who  is  in  earnest 
usually  makes  a  good  impression.  Therefore,  if  you 
master  your  message  and  determine  to  deliver  it  as 
planned,  you  have  to  be  exceedingly  poor  in  speaking  to 
spoil  the  success  of  your  speech.  But  remember,  each 
group  of  ideas  must  be  well  organized  and  the  whole 
speech  must  be  planned  along  distinct,  clean-cut  lines. 


30  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Without  the  reenforcement  of  such  thorough  preparation, 
your  enthusiasm  will  vanish  and  your  earnestness  will 
give  way  to  doubt  and  confusion.  Prepare  j'ourself  well, 
then  speak  to  win. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  stiulent  to  vise  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  suggestive  merely,  dealing  largely  with  tlie  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  he  ])laced  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

-^    1.  What  are  the  three  major  parts  in  the  organization  of  a 
speech  ? 

2.  In  your  own  writing  and  speaking,  do  you  use  the  terms 

'"first,"  "second,"  etc..  for  the  main  divisions  of  your  thought? 

•').  Kecall  some  speaker  whose  thought  seems  confused.     Recall 

the  speakers  to  whom  it  is  easy  to  Hsten.     Is  not  the  important 

difference  between  them  in  clearness  of  outline? 

4.  Remember  an  audience  that  was  hostile  to  a  speaker. 
What  was  the  hostility? 

5.  How  did  the  speaker  endeavor  to  overcome  the  hostility? 
Did  he  succeed? 

6.  When  may  a  speaker  plunge  into  his  topic  without  an 
introduction? 

7.  Recall  without  consulting  the  text  the  main  divisions  of 
Conkling's  speech  nominating  Grant. 

8.  What  was  the  greatest  objection  to  the  nomination  of 
Grant? 

9.  Wliy  does  Conkling  leave  that  point  until  well  toward  the 
end  of  his  address? 

10.  Do  you  recall  a  recent  national  convention  in  which  a 
nominating  speaker  faced  practically  the  same  objection  as 
( 'onkling  did? 

11.  Conkling's  speech  seems  rather  florid  (flowery).  When 
is  this  style  justifiable?  In  what  kinds  of  addresses  Is  it 
entirely  out  of  place? 

12.  Reproduce  from  memory  the  general  outline  suitable  for 
most  nonnnating  speeches. 

13.  Recall  some  nominating  speech  you  have  heard.  How 
does  it  compare  with  Conkling's? 


LESSON  3 

THJS  PURPOSE  OF  THE  INTRODUCTION 

We  have  seen  that  a  speech  has  for  its  central  purpose, 
the  (leHvery  of  a  certain  body  of  information — the  ex- 
pression of  a  message  in  which  the  speaker  believes  and 
with  which  he  hopes  to  influence  his  hearers.  That  mes- 
sage constitutes  the  bqd^  of  the  speech.  It  may  have 
many  parts  or  subdivisions,  but  all  of  them,  taken  to- 
gether, round  out  the  message  the  speaker  has  to  deliver. 
We  have  briefly  suggested  that  it  is  often  wise  to  smooth 
the  way  for  this  message  by  some  introductory  remarks. 
It  will  be  the  aim  of  this  lesson  and  the  following  one  to 
show  some  of  the  obstacles  which  must  be  smoothed  away 
by  the  introduction  and  to  indicate  the  proper  methods 
of  doing  this.  We  shall  consider  the  purpose  of  the  intro-  ^ 
duction  under  three  heads:  (A)  To  put  the  audience  in 
a  state  of  favorable  feeling;  (B)  to  arouse  interest  and 
secure  attention;  and  (C)  to  prepare  the  audience  to 
understand  the  message.  One  caution  must  be  given: 
While  planning  the  introduction  and  making  a  detailed 
study  of  its  particular  functions,  the  whole  speech  must 
be  kept  in  mind  all  the  time.  All  other  parts  merely  set 
the  scenes,  as  it  were,  or  throw  a  stronger  light  upon  the 
central  theme. 

(A)     TO  PUT  THE  AUDIENCE  IX  A  STATE  OF  FAVOR- 
ABLE FEELING 

If  the  audience  is  well  disposed  to  the  speaker  and  his 
subject,  and  if  it  is  in  a  favorable  emotional  state — one 

31 


32  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

of  good  will  or  entliusiasm,  tlien  one  of  the  services  of 
an  introduction  is  unnecessary.  That  service  is  to  render 
the  autlience  favorable,  from  an  emotional  or  feeling 
standpoint,  to  the  reception  of  the  message.  But  if  there 
is  the  slightest  ill  will,  bad  temper,  or  even  indifference, 
something  nnist  be  done  to  remove  it  before  the  main 
business  of  the  speech  is  taken  up.  We  all  know  that  our 
enemies  condenm  our  views  before  they  are  stated.  Ill 
feeling  is  transferred  from  the  man  to  his  ideas.  Not 
only  are  strong  feelings  of  hatred  a  bar  to  a  fair  hearing, 
but  even  a  slight  inditference  is  sufficient  to  stand  in 
the  way  of  an  unl)iased  reception.  Then  also,  .the  deliv- 
ery of  a  speech  may  be  surrounded  by  special  circum- 
stances which  will  make  the  auditors  inclined  away  from 
rather  than  toward  the  speaker  and  his  cause.  Later  in 
this  lesson  we  shall  enumerate  various  unfavoi-able  emo- 
tional states,  discuss  the  circumstances  which  give  rise 
to  them,  and  indicate  methods  of  offsetting  them.  Just 
now,  while  Conkling's  nomination  of  Grant  is  fresh  in 
your  mind,  we  shall  show  how  Garfield  undertook  to 
counteract  the  enthusiasm  it  aroused,  in  order  that  he 
might  present  the  name  of  another  candidate. 

How  Garfield  Wox  a  Hearing 

Imagine  the  high  excitement  which  reigned  in  the  con- 
vention when  Conkling  finished  and  had  been  ably  sec- 
onded by  Bradley  of  Kentucky.  To  stem  this  tide  of 
feeling  was  (Jarfield's  first  necessity.  He  wanted  to  nom- 
inate Sherman  of  Ohio.  It  would  have  been  foolish  to 
jidvance  a  single  thought  in  the  line  of  his  pui-pose  until 
he  had  brought  his  hearers  to  a  state  of  (';diH  and  had 


PURPOSE  OP  THE  INTKODUCTIOX  33 

them  forget,  for  a  time  at  least,  the  words  of  Conkling. 
Notice  how  he  did  it. 

I  have  witnessed  the  extraordinary  scenes  of  this  conventioji 
with  deep  solicitude.  Nothing  touches  my  heart  more  quickly 
than  a  tribute  of  honor  to  a  great  and  noble  character;  but  as 
I  sat  in  my  seat  and  witnessed  this  demonstration,  this  assein 
blage  seemed  to  me  a  human  ocean  in  tempest.  I  have  seen  the 
sea  lashed  into  fury  and  tossed  into  spray,  and  its  grandeui- 
moves  the  soul  of  the  dullest  man ;  but  I  remember  that  it  is  not 
the  billows,  but  the  calm  level  of  tVie  sea,  from  which  all  heights 
and  depths  are  measured.  When  the  storm  has  passed  and  the 
hour  of  calm  settles  on  the  ocean,  when  the  sunlight  bathes  its 
peaceful  surface,  then  the  astronomer  and  surveyor  take  the 
level  from  which  they  measure  all  terrestrial  heights  and 
depths. 

Gentlemen  of  the  Conv(5ntion,  your  present  temper  may  not 
mark  the  healthful  pulse  of  our  people.  When  your  enthusiasm 
has  passed,  when  the  emotions  of  this  hour  have  subsided,  we 
shall  find  below  the  storm  and  passion  that  calm  level  of  public 
opinion  from  which  the  thoughts  of  a  mighty  people  are  to  be 
measured,  and  by  which  final  action  will  be  determined. 

Not  here,  in  this  brilliant  circle,  where  fifteen  thousand  men 
and  women  are  gathered,  is  the  destiny  of  the  Republic  to  be 
decreed  for  the  next  four  years.  Not  here  where  I  see  the  enthu- 
siastic faces  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty-six  delegates,  waiting 
to  cast  their  lots  into  the  urn  and  determine  the  choice  of  the 
Republic,  but  by  four  millions  of  Republican  firesides,  where 
the  thoughtful  voters,  Avith  wives  and  children  about  them,  with 
the  calm  thoughts  inspired  by  love  of  home  and  country,  with 
the  history  of  the  past,  the  hopes  of  the  future,  and  reverence 
for  the  great  men  who  have  adorned  and  blessed  our  nation  in 
days  gone  by,  burning  in  their  hearts, — there  God  prepares  the 
verdict  which  will  determine  the  wisdom  of  our  work  tonight. 
Not  in  Chicago,  in  the  heat  of  June,  but  at  the  ballot-boxes  of 
the  Republic,  in  the  quiet  of  November,  after  the  silence  of 
deliberate  judgment,  will  this  question  be  settled.  And  noAV, 
gentlemen  of  the  Convention,  what  do  Ave  want  ?  * 


34  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Bear  with  me  for  a  moment.  "Hear  me  for  my  cause,"  and 
for  a  moment  "be  silent  that  you  may  hear." 

Twenty-five  years  ago,  this  Republic  was  bearing  and  wear- 
ing a  triple  chain  of  bondage.  Long  familiarity  with  traffic  in 
the  bodies  and  souls  of  men  had  paralyzed  the  conscience 
of  a  majority  of  our  people;  the  narrowing  and  disintegrating 
doctrine  of  State  sovereignty  had  shackled  and  weakened  the 
noblest  and  most  beneficent  powers  of  the  national  government ; 
and  the  grasping  power  of  slavery  was  seizing  upon  the  virgin 
territories  of  the  West  and  dragging  them  into  the  den  of  eternal 
bonda.ge. 

At  that  crisis,  the  Republican  party  Avas  born.  It  drew  its 
first  inspiration  from  the  fire  of  liberty  which  God  had  lighted 
in  every  human  heart,  and  which  all  the  powers  of  tyranny 
and  ignorance  could  not  wholly  extinguish.  The  Republican 
party  came  to  deliver  and  to  save.  It  entered  the  arena  where 
the  beleaguered  and  assailed  Territories  were  struggling  for 
freedom,  and  drew  around  them  the  sacred  circle  of  liberty^ 
which  the  demon  of  slavery  has  never  dared  to  cross.  It  made 
them  free  forever.  Strengthened  by  its  victory  on  the  frontier, 
the  young  party,  under  the  leadership  of  the  great  man  who  on 
this  spot,  twenty  years  ago,  was  made  its  chief,  entered  the 
national  Capitol,  and  assumed  the  high  duties  of  government. 
The  light  which  shone  from  its  banner  illumined  its  pathway  to 
power.  Every  slave-pen  and  the  shackles  of  every  slave  within 
the  shadow  of  the  Capitol  were  consumed  in  the  rekindled  fire 
of  freedom. 

Our  great  national  industries  by  cruel  and  calculating  neglect 
had  been  prostrated,  and  the  streams  of  revenue  flowed  in  such 
feeble  currents  that  the  treasury  itself  was  well-nigh  empty. 
The  money  of  the  people  consisted  mainly  of  the  wretched  notes 
of  two  thousand  uncontrolled  and  irresponsible  state  banking 
corporations,  which  were  filling  the  country  with  a  circulation 
that  poisoned,  rather  than  sustained,  the  life  of  business. 

The  Republican  party  changed  all  this.  It  abolished  a 
babel  of  confusion,  and  gave  to  the  country  a  currency  as 
national  as  its  fiag,  bas(Ml  upon  the  sacred  -faith  of  the  people. 
It  threw  its  protecting  juiii   ;i round  our  great  industries,  and 


PURPOSE  OP  THE  INTRODUCTION       35 

they  stood  erect  with  new  life.  It  filled  with  the  spirit  of  true 
nationality  all  the  great  functions  of  the  government.  It  con- 
fronted a  rebellion  of  unexampled  magnitude,  with  slavery 
behind  it,  and,  under  God,  fought  the  final  battle  of  liberty  until 
the  victory  was  won. 

After  the  storms  of  battle,  were  heard  the  calm  words  of 
peace  spoken  by  the  conquering  nation,  saying  to  the  foe  that 
hiy  prostrate  at  its  feet:  "This  is  our  only  revenge — that  you 
join  us  in  lifting  into  the  serene  firmament  of  the  Constitution, 
to  shine  like  stars  for  ever  and  ever,  the  immortal  principles  of 
truth  and  justice :  that  all  men,  white  or  black,  shall  be  free,  and 
shall  stand  equal  before  the  law." 

Then  came  the  questions  of  reconstruction,  the  national  debt, 
and  the  keeping  of  the  public  faith.  In  tlie  settlement  of  these 
(luestions,  the  Rej^ublicau  party  has  completed  its  twenty-five 
>  ears  of  glorious  existence  and  it  has  sent  us  here  to  prepare  it 
for  another  lustrum  of  duty  and  of  victory.  How  shall  we 
accomplish  this  great  work?  We  cannot  do  it,  my  friends,  by 
assailing  our  Republican  brethren.  God  forbid  that  I  should 
say  one  word,  or  cast  one  shadow,  upon  any  name  on  the  roll 
of  our  heroes.  The  coming  fight  is  our  Thermopylae.  We  are 
standing  upon  a  narrow  isthmus.  If  our  Spartan  hosts  are 
united,  we  can  withstand  all  the  Persians  that  the  Xerxes  of 
Democracy  can  bring  against  us.  Let  us  hold  our  ground  this 
one  year,  and  then  "the  stars  in  their  courses"  will  fight  for  us. 
The  census  will  bring  reenforcements  and  continued  power.** 

But  in  order  to  win  victory  now,  we  want  the  vote  of  every 
Republican — of  every  Grant  Republican,  and  every  anti-Grant 
Republican,  in  America — of  every  Blaine  man  and  every  anti- 
Blaine  man.  The  vote  of  every  follower  of  every  candidate  is 
needed  to  make  success  certain.  Therefore  I  say,  gentlemen 
and  brethren,  we  are  here  to  take  calm  counsel  together,  and 
inquire  what  we  shall  do. 

We  want  a  man  whose  life  and  opinions  embody  all  the 
achievements  of  which  I  have  spoken.  We  want  a  man  who, 
standing  on  a  mountain  height,  traces  the  victorious  footsteps 
of  our  party  in  the  past,  and,  carrying  in  his  heart  the  memory 
of  its  glorious  deeds,  looks  forward  proparod  to  meet  the  dangers 


36  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

to  come.  We  want  one  who  will  act  in  no  spirit  of  unkindness 
toward  those  we  lately  met  in  battle.  The  Republican  party 
offers  to  our  brethren  of  the  South  the  olive-branch  of  peace,  and 
invites  them  to  renewed  brotherhood  on  this  supreme  convic- 
tion— that  it  shall  be  admitted  forever,  that  in  the  war  for  the 
Lnion  we  were  right  and  they  were  wrong.  On  that  supreme 
conviction  we  meet  them  as  brethren,  and  ask  them  to  share  with 
us  the  blessings  and  honors  of  this  great  Republic. 

Now,  gentlemen,  not  to  weary  you,  I  am  about  to  present  a 
name  for  your  consideration, — the  name  of  one  who  was  the 
comrade,  associate,  and  friend  of  nearly  all  the  noble  dead, 
whose  faces  look  down  upon  us  from  these  walls  tonight ;  a  man 
w  ho  began  his  career  of  public  service  twenty-five  years  ago, — 
who  courageously  confronted  the  slave  power  in  the  days  of 
peril,  on  the  plains  of  Kansas,  when  first  began  to  fall  the  red 
drops  of  that  bloody  shower  which  finally  swelled  into  the  deluge 
of  gore  in  the  late  rebellion.  He  bravely  stood  by  young  Kan- 
sas, and,  returning  to  his  seat  in  the  national  legislature,  his 
pathway  through  all  the  subsequent  years  has  been  marked  by 
labors  worthily  performed  in  every  department  of  legislation. 

You  ask  for  his  monument.  I  point  you  to  twenty-five  years 
of  national  statutes.  Not  one  great,  beneficent  law  has  been 
placed  on  our  statute  books  without  his  intelligent  and  powerful 
aid.  lie  aided  in  fornuilating  the  laws  to  raise  the  great  armies 
and  navies  which  carried  us  through  the  war.  His  hand  was 
seen  in  the  workmanship  of  those  statutes  that  restored  and 
brought  back  "the  unity  and  married  calm  of  states."  His 
liand  was  in  all  that  great  legislation  that  created  the  war  cur- 
rency, and  in  all  the  still  greater  work  that  redeemed  the  prom- 
ises of  the  government  and  made  the  currency  equal  to  gold. 

When  at  last  he  passed  from  the  halls  of  legislation  into  a 
liigh  execntive  office,  he  displayed  that  experience,  intelligence, 
firnniess,  and  poise  of  character,  wliich  liave  carried  us  through 
a  stormy  period  of  three  years,  with  one-half  the  public  press 
crying,  "Cracify  him!"  and  a  hostile  Congress  seeking  to  pre- 
vent success.  In  all  this  he  remained  unmoved  until  victory 
crowned  him.  The  great  fiscal  affairs  of  the  nation,  and  the  vast 
business  interests  of.   the  country,   he   guarded  and  preserved 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  INTRODUCTlOxX  37 

while  executing  the  law  of  resumption,  and  etfceted  its  object 
without  a  jar  and  against  the  false  prophecies  of  one-half  of  the 
press  and  of  all  the  Democratic  party. 

He  has  shown  himself  able  to  meet  with  calmness  the  great 
emergencies  of  the  government.  For  twenty-five  years  he  has 
trodden  the  perilous  heights  of  public  duty,  and  against  all  the 
shafts  of  malice  has  borne  his  breast  unharmed.  He  has  stood 
in  the  blaze  of  "that  fierce  light  that  beats  against  the  throne"; 
but  its  fiercest  ray  has  found  no  flaw  in  his  armor,  no  stain  upon 
his  shield.  I  do  not  present  him  as  a  better  Republican  or  a  bet- 
ter man  than  thousands  of  others  that  we  honor;  but  I  present 
him  for  your  deliberate  and  favorable  consideration.  I  nominate 
John  Shei-man  of  Ohio.^ 

Observations  ox  How  Garfield  Changed  the  Feelings  of 
AN  Audience  in  an  Unfavorable  Emotional  State 

1.  He  does  not  harshly  attack  Grant  or  Conkling  or 
say  anything  to  offend  tliem  or  their  friends. 

2.  He  flatters  the  audience  positively  by  such  expres- 
sions as  ''this  brilliant  circle"  and  "delegates  *  *  * 
to  determine  the  choice  of  the  Eepublic." 

In  a  somewhat  negative  way  he  appeases  them  by  call- 
ing their  faults  "enthusiasm"  and  comparing  them  in 
grandeur  with  the  ocean. 

3.  Only  gradually  does  he  bring  about  the  feeling  that 
possibly  a  calmer  frame  of  mind  is  necessary  and  prefer- 
able to  the  tempest  of  enthusiasm  (to  point  marked  *  on 
page  33). 

4.  Then  he  holds  them  on  another  topic  about  which 
all  present  agree,  namely,  the  glories  of  the  Republican 

>V,  1  It  is  interesting  to  laiow  that  tliis  speech  won  the  nomination  and 
consequent  presidency  not  for  Sherman,  but  for  Garfiekl  himself.  It 
called  attention  to  the  availability  of  Garfield.  The  vote  that  nominated 
Garfield  was:  Garfield,  399;  Grant,  306;  Blaine,  42;  Washbourne,  5; 
Sherman,  3.     Necessary  for  choice,  378. 


38  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

party  from  its  birth  all  tlirough  its  legislative  accomplish- 
ments. 

This  was  introductory  and  designed  to  efface  the  emo- 
tions in  which  he  found  his  audience.  After  that,  he  de- 
livered a  speech  almost  identical  in  form  with  that  of 
Conkling's  speech.  Compare  the  part  from  the  two  stars 
(**)  to  the  end,  with  the  nomination  of  Grant.  Garfield 
gives  virtues  to  Sherman  similar  to  those  already  attrib- 
uted to  Grant,  and  the  whole  eulogy  is  as  like  the  other 
as  two  separate  speeches  could  possibly  be.  But  ob- 
serve that  he  leaves  the  naming  of  his  man  to  the  end. 
That  was  a  wise  course  when  we  consider  that  Sherman 
was  a  dark  horse  and' the  eulogy  was  likely  to  strengthen 
the  name  rather  than  the  name  secure  favorable  attention 
to  the  eulogy. 

Introduction  is  Used  Whenever  Any  Change  Whatso- 
ever IS  Wanted  in  the  Emotional  Set  of  the  Audience 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  the  introduction  to  influ- 
ence the  emotional  state  of  the  audience  is  used  only 
when  the  audience  is  in  a  state  of  more  or  less  violent 
opposition ;  it  is  of  service  whenever  a  change  in  the  emo- 
tional atmosjjhere  (if  we  may  use  that  expression)  is 
desirable.  The  little  child  acts  this  out  when  he  resorts 
to  all  sorts  of  blandishments  before  asking  his  mother 
for  money  to  buy  candy.  The  travelling  salesman  knows 
it  when  he  tells  innumerable  funny  stories  before  showing 
his  samples.  The  after-dinner  speaker  feels  the  need  of 
a  favorable  mood  when  he  begins  with  puns  and  jokes. 
Remembering  that  it  is  not  wise  to  plunge  into  your 
message  until  you  get  the  audience  in  a  favorable  (-mo- 
tional state,  let  us  (without  pi-etending  to  be  exhaustive) 


PURPOSE  OF  TIIP]  INTEODUCTTON  39 

cnumorate  some  of  tlio  typical  situations  to  be  faced  and 
suggest  methods  of  meeting  them. 

How  TO  Meet  Typical  Intkoductory  Difficulties 

(a)  Strong  Enthusiasm  fur  Another  Cause'^ 

Seek  to  get  the  audience  into  a  state  of  calm;  talk  for 
a  while  upon  something  about  which  all  agree.  Keep 
this  up  until  the  first  emotions  are  well  in  the  background. 
Then  gradually  introduce  the  new  message  and  work  for 
your  pwn  effects. 

(h)  Direct  Hostility 

Strong  feeling  against  you  or  your  cause.  The  time- 
honored  example  of  this  situation  is  the  Liverpool  speecli 
of  Henry  Ward  Beecher.  He  was  in  England  to  speak 
for  the  Northern  cause  during  the  Civil  War.  Liverpool 
was  a  great  shipping  center  and  did  an  enormous  busi- 
ness importing  raw  cotton  from  the  Southern  States  and 
exporting  to  them  manufactured  goods  and  machinery. 
The  people  not  only  sympathized  with  the  South  and 
hated  th^  North,  but  they  had  been  inflamed  against 
Beecher.  He  had  been  misquoted  on  public  placards; 
the  words,  attributed  to  him,  made  him  the  arch-enemy 
of  England.  His  character  had  been  painted  most  black ; 
he  had  been  threatened  with  death.  When  he  faced 
his  audience,  he  was  greeted, with  a  roar  of  derision,  cat- 
calls, arid  threats.  For  an  hour  and  a  half  he  worked  on 
the  audience  until  he  had  a  fair  degree  of  sympathetic 
attention;  then  he  proceeded  with  his  arguments.     The 

2  Illustratoil  in  the  rfarfield  speech. 


40  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

following  extracts  from  his  introduction  will  indicate 
his  method. 

For  more  than  twenty-five  years  I  have  been  perfectly  famil- 
iar with  popular  assemblies  in  all  parts  of  my  country  except 
the  extreme  South.  There  has  not  for  the  whole  of  that  time 
been  a  single  day  of  my  hfe  when  it  would  have  been  safe  for 
me  to  go  south  of  the  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  in  my  own  coun- 
try, and  all  for  one  reason :  my  solemn,  earnest  and  persistent 
testimony  against  what  I  consider  to  be  the  most  atrocious  thing 
under  the  sun — the  system  of  American  slavery  in  a  great,  free 
republic.  *  *  *  I  have  passed  through  the  period  when  the 
right  of  free  speech  was  denied  me.  *  *  *  Now  since  I  have 
been  in  England,  although  I  have  met  M'ith  greater  kindness  and 
courtesy  on  the  part  of  most  than  I  deserve,  yet  on  the  other 
hand  I  see  that  the  Southern  influence  jirevails  to  some  extent 
in  England.  (Applause  and  uproar.)  *  *  *  One  thing  is 
very  certain — if  you  do  permit  me  to  speak,  you  will  hear  very 
plain  talking.  (Applause  and  hisses.)  *  *  *  And  if  I  do 
not  mistake  the  tone  and  temper  of  Englishmen,  they  had  rather 
have  a  man  wlio  opposes  them  in  a  manly  way  than  a  sneak  who 
agrees  with  them  in  an  unmanly  way.  (Applause  and  "Bravo.") 
If  I  can  carry  you  Avith  me  by  sound  convictions,  I  shall  be 
immensely  glad  (applause)  ;  but  if  I  cannot  carry  you  with  me 
liy  facts  and  sound  arguments,  I  do  not  wish  you  to  go  wdth  me 
at  all;  and  all  that  I  ask  is  simply  fair  play.  (A  voice:  "You 
shall  have  it  too.") 

The  method  here  is  to  make  an  open,  manly  appeal  foi" 
fair  play.  The  manner  should  be  conciliatory  but  not  sub- 
servieni  Make  it  clear  that  fair  play  is  expected  from 
such  an  audience.  Get  the  personal  good  will  of  the 
audience.  Then  treat  some  matters  of  general  truth  or 
principle  u])on  which  all  will  agree.  Such  ideals  as  those 
of  freedom,  justice,  honor,  integrity,  etc.,  may  be  used. 
Then  with  these  general  matters  of  agreement  as  a  point 
of  depai'ture,  gradually  shoAv  the  reasonaldeness  of  your 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  INTRODUCTION  41 

sjjecific  message  because  it  is  in  harmony  with  what  they 
already  accept.  Be  most  cautions  and  tactful  as  you  pro- 
ceed to  new  topics;  never  lose  the  grasp  you  obtain. 
When  the  audience  is  with  you  from  the  start,l)C>tdness  is 
a  virtue  and  you  can  carry  all  before  you  with  a  rush. 
But  when  the  audience  is  originally  hostile,  after  securing 
a  hearing,  proceed  with  great  care. 

(c)  Indifference  or  Lack  of  Positively  Favorable 
Emotions 

This  is  the  condition  in  which  most  audiences  are  found. 
They  have  not  been  excited  in  any  definite  direction  be- 
fore the  speaker  begins  to  address  them.  Whatever  emo- 
tions or  moods  exist,  they  are  individual  and  not  collect- 
ive. One  man  may  be  happy  and  his  neighbor  depressed. 
The  speaker  here  seeks  to  create  a  general  or  common 
emotional  state  favorable  to  the  reception  of  the  mes- 
sage. Here  we  may  well  discuss  those  things  in  the 
speaker  or  in  the  way  he  approaches  his  subject  that  al- 
ways incline  the  hearer  favorably  toward  him. 

1.  The  Speaker  Must  Always  Appear  Modest. — Even 
our  friends  are  inclined  to  give  us  a  rap  or  two  if  they 
think  us  conceited.  Those  who  are  indifferent  are  turned 
from  us  by  a  display  of  egotism,  while  our  enemies  openly 
deride  us  for  it.  Therefore,  a  speaker  must  always  be 
modest.  It  is  a  noteworthj^  fact  that  this  quality  is  evi- 
dent in  the  opening  remarks  of  over  seventy-five  per  cent 
of  the  speeches  we  have  examined.  Tlie  manner,  as  well 
as  the  actual  words  used,  is  of  great  importance.  Indeed 
the  words  without  the  manner  is  only  mock-modesty,  an 
irritating  and  undesirable  evidence  of  the  greatest 
egotism.    The  virtue  of  modesty  must  appear  throughout 


42  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

the  speech,  but  a  lack  of  it  is  more  evident  in  the  begin- 
ning. Observe  the  following  opening  of  John  Hancock's 
Oration  upon  the  Boston  Massacre  (March  5,  1774). 

The  attentive  gravity,  the  venerable  appearance  of  this 
crowded  audience;  the  dignity  which  I  behold  in  the  counte- 
nances of  so  many  of  this  great  assembly ;  the  solemnity  of  the 
occasion  upon  which  we  have  met  together,  joined  to  a  consid- 
eration of  the  part  I  am  to  take  in  the  important  business  of 
this  day,  fill  me  with  an  awe  hitherto  unknown,  and  heighten 
the  sense  which  I  have  ever  had,  of  my  unworthiness  to  fill  this 
sacred  desk.  But,  allured  by  the  call  of  some  of  my  respected 
fellow-citizens,  wuth  whose  request  it  is  always  my  greatest 
pleasure  to  comply,  I  almost  forgot  my  w^ant  of  ability  to  per- 
form what  they  required.  In  this  situation  I  find  my  only  sup- 
port in  assuring  myself  that  a  generous  people  will  not  severely 
censure  what  they^  know  was  well  intended,  though  its  want  of 
merit  should  prevent  their  being  able  to  applaud  it.  And  I 
pray  that  my  sincere  attachment  to  the  interest  of  my  country, 
and  hearty  detestation  of  any  design  formed  against  her  liber- 
ties, may  be  admitted  as  some  apology  for  my  appearance  in  this 
place. 

2.  Sincerity  is  the  next  quality  which  must  make  its 
impression  upon  the  audience  at  the  outset.  It  is  some- 
times thought  that  sincerity  is  a  quality  only  displayed 
in  very  serious  speeches.  But  we  do  not  limit  ourselves 
that  way  in  our  use  of  the  term.  A  man  may  be  sincerely 
jolly  as  well  as  grave.  By  sincerity,  we  mean  that  a 
person  truly  jentei's  into  the  fegling  which  his  words  out- 
wardly express.  A  speaker  has  impressed  his  sincerity 
upon  an  audience  when  those  in  it  believe  that  he  is  ^m- 
self ,  expressing  his  own  thoughts  and  feelings  and  not 
})retending  for  the  sake  of  effect. 

Notice  the  sincerity  as  well  as  modesty  in  the  example 


r  rCRPOSE  OF  THE  INTRODUCTION  43 

just  given  and  also  in  the  following-  from  "The  Claim 
of  Socialism,"  by  William  Morris: 

I  have  locked  at  this  elaiin  by  the  light  of  history  and  my 
owu  conseieiiee,  and  it  seems  to  me — so  k)oked  at — to  l)e  a 
most  just  claim,  and  that  resistance  to  it  means  nothing  short  of 
a  denial  of  the  hope  of  civilization. 

This,  then,  is  the  claim : 

It  is  right  and  necessary  that  all  men  should  have  work 
to  do  which  shall  be  worth  doing,  and  be  of  itself  pleasant  to 
do :  and  which  should  be  done  under  such  conditions  as  would 
make  it  neither  over-wearisome  nor  over-anxious. 

Turn  that  claim  about  as  I  may,  think  of  it  as  long  as  I  can, 
I  cannot  find  that  it  is  an  exorbitant  claim;  yet  again  I  say  if 
Society  would  or  could  admit  it,  the  face  of  the  world  would 
be  changed;  discontent  and  strife  and  dishonesty  would  be 
ended.  To  feel  that  we  were  doing  work  useful  to  others  and 
]  leasant  to  ourselves,  and  that  such  work  and  its  due  reward 
could  not  fail  us  !    What  serious  harm  could  happen  to  us  then  ? 

Of  course  protestations  of  modesty  and  sincerity 
should  not  be  made  in  tiresome  profusion.  Booker  T. 
Washington  began  an  address  to  the  Harvard  Alumni 
as  follows:  "If  through  me,  an  humble  representative, 
the  eight  millions  of  my  people  in  the  South  might  be 
permitted  to  bring  a  message  to  Harvard  *  *  *  that 
message  would  be,"  etc.  The  aim  is  to  be  of  gentle- 
manly modesty  and  to  avoid  offensive  cock-sureness. 
Too  great  a  display  of  confidence  at  the  outset  offends 
most  men.  Flippancy  also  gives  the  impression  of 
shallowness  and  lack  of  sincerity.  The  following  extract 
shows  an  excellent  blending  of  the  qualities  desired  with 
a  winsome  good  humor.  It  is  the  beginning  of  John 
Hay's  speech  on  Omar  Khayyam  and  Fitzg&rald,  deliv- 
ered before  the  Omar  Khayyam  Club  of  London, 
December  8,  1897. 


44  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

I  cannot  sufficiently  thank  you  for  the  high  and  unmerited 
honor  you  have  done  me  tonight.  I  feel  keenly  that  on  such  an 
occasion,  Avith  such  company,  my  plac^is  below  the  salt;  but  as 
you  kindly  invited  me,  it  was  not  in  human  nature  to  refuse. 

Although  in  knowledge  and  comprehension  of  the  two  great 
poets  whom  you  are  met  to  commemorate  I  am  the  least  among 
you,  there  is  no  one  who  regards  them  with  greater  admiration, 
or  reads  them  with  more  enjoyment  than  myself.  I  can  never 
forget  my  emotions  when  I  first  saw  Fitzgerald's  translation  of 
the  Quatrains.  Keats,  in  his  sublime  ode  on  Chapman's  Homer, 
has  described  the  sensation  once  for  all: 

Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken. 

The  exquisite  lieauty,  the  faultless  form,  the  singular  grace  of 
those  amazing  stanzas  were  not  more  wonderful  than  the  depth 
and  breadth  of  their  profound  philosophy,  their  knowledge  of 
life,  their  dauntless  courage,  their  serene  facing  of  the  ultimate 
problems  of  life  and  of  death. — From  Addresses  of  John  Hay, 
Century  Co.,  1906. 

3.  Add  to  the  two  (jualities  mcntioiied  personal  atfracf- 
iveness,  composite  of  all  those  indescribable  things 
which  make  one  person  more  universally  liked  than  an- 
other. Of  course  that  cannot  be  prepared  in  a  moment  as 
part  of  the  introduction  of  a  particular  speech.  The 
whole  life  of  goodfellowship,  kindliness,  and  accomplish- 
ments gradually  builds  it  u]).  A  speaker  can,  however, 
earnestly  try  to  keep  the  w(dfare  of  the  audience  before 
him  and  speak  to  them  from  the  vantage  point  of  high 
ideals.  If  this  be  done,  his  best  personality  will  show 
through  his  words  and  live  in  every  gesture. 

There  are  other  ways  in  which  the  introduction  pre- 
pares the  wayjor  the  message  proper,  but  they  are  not 
matters  of  emotion  or  feeling.     For  instance,  the  intro- 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  IXTRODUCTrON  45 

(luction  servos  to  attract  and  hold  the  attention  so  that 
the  ideas  will  all  be  properly  grasped;  it  x)i"fp<^i'es  or  edn- 
cates  the  audience  to  an  understanding'  of  the  subseciuent 
speech  and  it  marks  out  the  subject  an  1  method  of  treat- 
ment. But  all  these  services  are  connected  with  the  in- 
tellectual or  knowing  aspect  of  speech-making  and  not  the 
emotional.  In  this  lesson  we  confined  ourselves  to  the 
emotional  side. 

Summary 

Let  us  sunnnarize  our  lesson  in  somewhat  different 
order  and  also  add  some  directions. 

1.  Never  attempt  to  deliver  your  message  until  there 
is  a  favorable  emotional  "atmosphere." 

2.  Secure  good  will  by  being  your  best  self  and  by  being 
truly  well-disposed  toward  what  is  right.  Be  modest  and 
sincere. 

3.  Set  out  deliberately  to  secure  a  state  of  calm  or  a 
removal  of  undesirable  emotions.  Then  work  to  incline 
the  audience  so  as  to  receive  your  own  message  most 
favorably. 

4.  Never  forget  that  what  is  gained  by  the  introduc- 
tion in  emotional  favor  nuist  be  maintained  throughout 
tlie  speech. 

5.  The  introduction  may  have  to  be  made  impromptu, 
for  it  is  not  always  possible  to  foresee  just  how  the  audi- 
ence will  be  feeling  when  you  meet  them.  If  you  have 
planned  an  introduction  which  is  found  to  be  unhappy, 
discard  it  and  deal  directly  w4th  the  actual  situation  you 
face.  Of  course  it  is  often  possible  to  prepare  a  perfectly 
usable  introduction  beforehand.  It  is  especially  advis- 
able to  have  in  the  introduction  some  reference  or  refer- 


46  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ences  to  events  that  have  happened,  or  words  that  have 
been  said,  just  before  you  begin  to  speak. 

6.  Always  prepare  the  body  of  the  speech  before  doing- 
any  work  on  the  introduction. 

7.  Observe  the  manner  of  speakers  you  hear  and  deter- 
mine what  there  is  winsome  or  repulsive  about  their  open- 
ing remarks.  Also  note  when  and  why  a  discordant  note 
is  struck  during  the  body  of  the  speech.  More  can  be 
gained  by  observing  real  speakers  than  by  reading  books ; 
most  can  be  secured  by  much  speaking  on  your  own  part. 
These  lessons  serve  to  guide  and  direct,  but  The  examples 
of  real  life  must  be  observed  to  make  the  subject  live. 

Assignment  of  Work 

The  written  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  your  notebook. 

First  Day. — You  have  read  through  the  lesson.  Now  study  it 
again  carefully,  mastering  its  contents.  Do  not  attempt  any 
of  the  exercises  until  after  the  second  reading. 

i^ccond  Day. — Take  a  nominating  speech  such  as  you  prepared 
for  the  last  lesson  and  write  out  an  introduction  Avhicli  would 
be  appropriate  when  the  audience  is  in  a  state  of  enthusiasm 
for  another  nominee. 

Third  Day. — AA^rite  out  an  introduction  for  one  of  the  following 
speeches : 

1.  In  favor  of  the  closed  shop  ;  delivered  before  an  employers' 

association. 

2.  In  favor  of  the  open  shop ;  before  a  union  which  now  tol- 

erates only  tlie  closed  shop. 

3.  Against  child  labor ;  before  a  body  of  mill  owners. 

4.  In  eulogy  of  Abraham  Lincoln ;  before  an  audience  in 

Charleston,  South  Carolina. 

5.  In  eulog}^  of  Calhoun;  before  an  audience  in  Boston. 

6.  In  favor  of  woman's  suffrage:  delivered  in  New  York. 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  IXTRODUCTIOX  47 

7.  Against  woman's  snffrage ;  delivered  in  Illinois  or  some 
other  sntt'rage  state. 

Fourth  Day. — Prepare  a  eomplete  outline  or  plan  of  a  speech 
you  might  be  called  upon  to  make,  and  with  it  an 
introduction  written  out  fully.  Append  a  note  stating  the 
occasion  of  the  speech  and  the  nature  of  the  audience. 

Fifth  Day. — Give  this  speech  in  full  orally  several  times.  Go 
over  the  introduction  often  but  do  not  memorize  it.  Let 
what  will,  recur  during  the  oral  development,  but  make  no 
effort  to  remember  exact  words.  Have  the  outline  of  the 
body  well  in  mind,  and  develop  it  by  headings.  Remember 
to  keep  the  headings  well  grouped.  Amplify  each  heading 
fully  before  passing  to  the  next. 

TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  siigyestire  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in 
the  notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  How  did  Garfield  endeavor  to  offset  the  intense  enthusiasm 
aroused  by  Conkling? 

2.  Do  you  recall  any  other  speaker  who  used,  for  a  similar 
l)urpose,  a  striking  figure  of  speech  like  Garfield's  figure  of  the 
storm-tossed  ocean? 

3.  State  for  yourself  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  formation  of 
the  Republican  Party  as  outlined  by  Garfield. 

4.  What  elements  in  Garfield's  speech  may  have  helped  win  for 
him  the  nomination  he  desired  for  Sherman!  Do  you  remember 
another  speech  which  won  a  nomination  for  the  presidency? 

5.  How  could  you  introduce  remarks  complimentary  to  a  gen- 
eral audience  in  your  town  if  you  were  pleading  for  money  for  a 
new  park? 

6.  What'are  the  features  in  the  quotation  from  William  ^Morris 
which  would  tend  to  prepare  the  minds  of  the  audience  for  a 
favorable  hearing? 

7.  "What  elements  in  Beecher's  introduction  will  always  succ(^ed 
in  overcoming  direct  hostility  on  the  part  of  an  audience? 


48  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

--.  8.  Indifference  is  the  diffieulty  most  speakers  have  to  face. 
What  three  qualities  in  the  speaker  himself  will  go  far  toward 
removing  indifference '? 

9.  Recall  the  speaker  who  seems  to  you  the  most  sincere  man 
you  have  ever  heard.  How  does  this  sincerity  modify  his 
speaking  ? 

10.  A  very  important  point  in  this  lesson  is  the  wisdom  of 
referring  in  your  introduction  to  something  that  has  been  said  or 
done  or  has  happened  just  before  you  begin  to  speak.  Plan  some 
such  extempore  remarks  for  the  following  situations : 

(a)  A  preceding  speaker  has  cast  reflections  on  your  sincerity. 

(b)  The  presiding  officer  has  referred  to  you  as  "eloquent." 

(c)  There  has  recently  occurred  a  public  disaster. 

(d)  A  man  in  your  town  has  received  some  merited  public 
honor. 

(e)  You  are  the  memlier  of  a  defeated  faction  in  recent  elec- 
tion. 

(f)  The  preceding  speaker  has  taken  a  large  part  of  your 
time. 


LESSON  4 

THE   PURPOSE    OF    THE    INTRODUCTION    (Continued) 

111  our  last  lesson,  we  dwelt  upon  the  necessity  of  hav- 
ing the  audience  well  disposed.  In  this  connection  we 
considered  the  first  purpose  of  an  introduction,  namely, 
to  put  the  audience  in  a  state  of  favorable  feeling.  All 
hostile  feelings  must  be  overcome  at  the  outset  and  a 
strong  effort  made  to  secure  the  positive  good  will  of 
the  hearers.  But  the  student  must  not  get  the  notion 
that  a  few  magic  words  in  the  introduction  will  establish 
pleasant  relations  once  and  for  all.  Quite  the  contrary; 
throughout  the  whole  address,  the  speaker  must,  by  his 
frank,  modest,  and  earnest  manner,  by  his  careful  state- 
ment of  some  things  and  his  tactful  avoidance  of  others, 
preserve  and  cultivate  the  desired  mood  of  his  auditors. 
Great  trial  lawyers  have  been  known  to  labor  with  jury- 
men for  hours  in  order  to  touch  the  responsive  chord 
in  each  one.  Such  master-students  of  the  human  heart 
are  too  wise  to  proceed  with  a  contention  until  they  are 
sure  that  the  hearers  are  in  a  s^Tupathetic  emotional 
state.  And  whenever  new  material  is  to  be  introduced 
or  a  change  of  viewpoint  is  necessary,  these  men  seek  to 
establish  the  new  trend  of  thought  without  spoiling  the 
favorable  attitude. 

(B)  TO  AROUSE  INTEREST  AND  SECURE  ATTENTION 

Besides  this  first  purpose  of  creating  friendly  feelings 
there  are  two  other  ends  which  the  speaker  muBt  smi^mv 

49 


50  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

plish  and  toward  wliicli  he  usually  begins  to  work  in  the 
introduction.  One  of  these  is  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the 
auditors  in  order  to  secure  their  best  attention.  Although 
related,  it  is  distinct  from  the  emotional  set  just  consid- 
ered. We  need  not  demonstrate  the  necessity  of  atten- 
tion. Without  it,  the  speaker  can  no  more  hope  to  de- 
liver his  message  than  a  telegraph  sender  can  expect  to 
transmit  a  message  with  the  receiver  asleep  at  the  other 
end  of  the  wire.  The  various  devices  to  be  used  to  gain 
the  attention  may  be  classified  under  two  main  headings : 
those  which  are  of  the  nature  of  ah  nipt  shocks  and  those 
which  are  promises  of  reward.  The  audience  may  be 
thrilled  into  attentiveness  or  they  may  be  won  by  the 
expectation  of  hearing  something  of  advantage  to  them. 
Either  or  both  of  these  kinds  of  artifices  may  be  used. 
By  attention,  we  mean  a  state  in  which  the  hearer  ex- 
cludes other  meditations  and  concentrates  his  mind  upon 
the  words  of  the  speaker.  It  is  a  condition  of  intellec- 
tual acuteness. 

The  Striking  Stim.ulus  to  Attention 

As  we  have  noted,  the  shock  is  one  means  of  securing 
attention.  It  is  especially  valuabh^  at  the  very  begin- 
ning of  a  speech,  but  it  may  be  used  at  any  place  where 
the  speaker  perceives  that  he  is  losing  his  griji  ui)on 
the  audience.  French  orators  are  very  fond  of  th(> 
striking  opening.  Notice  the  effect  of  these  words  of 
Victor  Hugo,  used  at  the  beginning  of  liis  defense  of  his 
son: 

Geiitk'UH'U  of  the  jury,  if  there  is  a  euljii'it  here,  it  is  not 
my  son, — it  is  myself, — it  is  I  1  1.  who  for  these  twenty-five 
years  have   opposed   capital    pniiishuK^iit, — have    contended   for 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  INTKODUCTION  51 

the  inviolability  of  human  life, — have  committed  this  crime  for 
\\hich  my  son  is  now  arraigned.  Here  I  denounce  myself,  Mr. 
Advocate  General !  1  have  committed  it  under  all  aggravated 
circumstances,  deliberately,  repeatedly,  tenaciously.  Yes,  this 
old  and  absurd  lex  talionis — this  law  of  blood  for  blood — I  have 
combated  all  my  life — all  my  life,  Gentlemen  of  the  Jury !  And 
while  I  have  breath,  I  will  continue  to  combat  it,  by  all  my  efforts 
as  a  writer,  by  all  my  words  and  all  my  votes  as  a  legislator ! 
1  declare  it  before  the  crucifix;  before  that  victim  of  the  penalty 
of  death,  who  sees  and  hears  us;  before  that  gibbet,  to  which, 
two  thousand  years  ago,  for  the  eternal  instruction  of  the  gen- 
erations, the  human  law  nailed  the  Divine ! 

Robespierre  began  his  last  speech,  delivered  two  days 
before  his  death,  with  these  words : 

The  enemies  of  the  Republic  call  me  tyrant !  Were  I  such 
they  would  grovel  at  my  feet.  I  should  gorge  them  with  gold, 
I  should  grant  them  immunity  for  their  crimes,  and  they  would 
be  grateful.  Were  I  such,  the  kings  we  have  vanquished,  far 
from  denouncing  Robespierre,  would  lend  me  their  guilty  suji^ 
port.     There  would  be  a  covenant  between  them  and  me. 

Henry  Ward  Beecher  is  said  to  have  begun  a  ser- 
mon, one  hot  Sunday  morning,  while  mopping  his  brow, 
with  the  remark:  "It  is  hotter  than  hell!"  Naturally\  , 
tliis  shocked  his  very  moral  audience  into  attention,  and 
be  did  not  lose  his  initial  hold  on  them  until  he  had  com- 
pleted his  talk  on  the  punishment  of  sin.  Once,  when 
he  was  to  speak  in  the  Broadway  Tabernacle,  on  the 
Death  of  John  Brown,  he  waited  in  an  ante-room,  not 
going  to  the  platform  until  the  very  moment  his  lecture 
was  to  begin.  Then,  suddenly  opening  the  door,  he 
sprang  to  the  platform,  dragging  a  massive  chain  after 
him.  Facing  the  audience,  he  cried  out:  ''These 
shackles  bound  the  limbs  of  a  human  being ;  I  hate  them ; 


X 


52  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

I  trample  them  under  foot!"  and  suited  tlie  action  to  the 
word. 

Henry  AV.  Grady,  a  Soutlierner,  speaking  before  the 
New  England  Society,  in  New  York,  introduced  his  ad- 
dress on  the  New  South  as  follows : 

"There  was  a  South  of  slavery  and  secession — that  South  is 
dead.  There  is  a  South  of  union  and  freedom — that  South, 
thank  God.  is  living,  breathing,  growing  every  hour." 

These  words,  delivered  from  the  immortal  lips  of  Benjamin 
II.  Hill  at  Tammany  Hall  iu  1866.  true  then  and  truer  now,  I 
shall  take  for  my  text  tonight. 

In  all  these  examples,  we  see  that  an  unusual  or  un- 
expected thing  was  said.  It  forced  attention.  A  i)ara- 
dox,  epigram,  or  striking  sentiment  may  always  be  de- 
pended upon  to  have  the  desired  effect.  But  attention 
attracted  in  such  a  way  is,  as  a  rule,  momentary  only. 
If  prolonged  concentration  is  wanted,  other  agencies 
must  be  used  to  sustain  the  interest. 

Attextiox  Tjirough  Promised  Gaix 

The  influence  to  be  used  to  get  and  maintain  more  per- 
manent attention  is  the  promise  of  gain.  The  audience 
must  have  some  hope  of  reward.  If  all  can  be  made  to 
believe  that  the  speaker  will  treat  a  very  vital  subject 
— one  touching  tlieii*  welfare  or  affecting  those  enter- 
prises in  which  tliey  ai-e  engaged,  they  will  remain  at- 
tentive. 

Pati'ick  Henry,  in  his  Appeal  to  Anns,  ini))ressed  the 
lieai-ei-s  with  the  iiiijtoi-taiice  of  tlie  discussion  not  (udy  to 
tlieir  own  but  also  to  the  nation's  (h'stiny. 

Mr.  I'r.'si.lciit  Xd  ..lie  thinks  m..iv  liiulily  llian  1  do  of  the 
])atri()tisiii,  as  well  as  the  al)iliti('.s.  of  the  vrvy  werlliy  tiriil  Iriiicii 


PURPOSE  OK    TJIE  INTRODUCTIOX  53 

who  have  just  addressed  the  house.  But  different  men  often 
see  the  same  subject  in  different  lights;  and,  tlierefore,  I  hope 
it  will  not  seem  disrespectful  to  those  gentlemen,  if,  entertaining, 
as  I  do,  opinions  quite  contrary  to  theirs,  I  speak  forth  my 
sentiments  freely  and  without  reserve.  This  is  no  time  for 
ceremony.  The  question  before  the  house  is  one  of  awful  mo- 
numt  to  this  country.  For  my  part,  I  consider  it  as  nothing 
less  than  a  question  of  freedom  or  slavery ;  and  in  proportion 
to  the  magnitude  of  the  subject  ought  to  be  the  freedom  of 
debate.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  we  can  hope  to  arrive  at 
truth,  and  fultil  the  great  responsibility  which  we  owe  to  God 
and  our  country.  Should  I  keep  back  my  opinions  at  such  a 
time  as  this,  I  should  consider  myself  as  guilty  of  treason  toward 
my  country,  and  of  an  act  of  disloyalty  toward  the  ^lajesty  of 
Heaven,  which  I  revere  above  all  earthly  kings. 

This  part  of  Patrick  Henry's  speecli  does  not  directly 
promise  a  reward  to  his  hearers  for  their  attention,  but 
it  strongly  intimates  that  the  discussion  will  help  to 
avoid  impending-  disaster,  Edward  Everett,  in  his  ad- 
dress before  the  scholarly  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society  at 
Harvard,  after  a  few  preliminary  remarks,  stated  his 
subject  and  aroused  interest  in  it  with  these  words : 

But  from  the  wide  held  of  literary  speculation,  and  innumer- 
able subjects  of  meditation  which  arise  in  it,  a  selection  must 
be  made.  And  it  has  seemed  to  me  proper  that  we  should  direct 
our  thoughts  not  merely  to  a  subject  of  interest  to  scholars,  but 
to  one  which  may  recommend  itself  as  peculiarly  appropriate  to 
us.  *  *  *  I  shall  need  no  excuse  to  a  society  of  American 
scholars,  in  choosing  for  the  theme  of  an  address,  on  an  occasion 
like  this,  the  peculiar  motives  to  intellectual  exertion  in  Amer- 
ica. In  this  subject,  that  curiosity  which  every  scholar  feels  in 
tracing  and  comparing  the  springs  of  mental  activity,  is  height- 
ened and  dignified  by  the  important  connection  of  the  inquiry 
with  the  condition  and  prospects  of  our  native  land. 


54  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Men  in  all  walks  of  life  and  in  varions  organizations 
have  certain  tastes  and  interests.  If  the  speaker  can 
judge  his  audience  aright  and  extend  a  promise  that 
their  desires  will  be  satisfied  and  their  welfare  consulted, 
he  has  taken  a  step  in  the  direction  of  securing  their  un- 
divided attention.  Once  secured,  it  must  not  he  lost.  If 
the  attention  falls  off,  it  must  be  stimulated  anew.  Th(> 
mental  attitude  of  the  speaker  also  must  be  one  of  alert- 
ness, for  if  he  observes  any  signs  of  inattention,  he  must 
quicken  his  hearers  to  renewed  application. 

(C)    TO   PREPARE  THE   AUDIENCE  TO  UNDERSTAND 
MOST   THOROUGHLY 

There  is  still  another  duty  usually  performed  by  the 
preliminary  portion  of  the  speech;  this  third  duty  is  to 
prepare  the  way  for  an  intellectual  grasp  or  understand- 
ing of  the  message.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  feeling,  but 
of  knowing.  A  man  may  like  you  ever  so  well,  and  in- 
deed be  anxious  to  hear  and  to  appreciate  all  you  care  to 
say;  but  if  you  inflict  an  argument  upon  him  before  ho 
is  acquainted  with  the  facts  of  the  case,  he  will  not  un- 
derstand your  reasoning  any  more  than  a  stranger  would 
understand  the  charge  of  a  judge  to  the  jury  if  he  should 
enter  the  conrt  after  all  the  testimony  has  been  taken. 
We  may  put  it  directly  by  saying  that  an  audience  must 
be  educated  up  to  understanding  your  argument. 

To  explain  this  matter  concretely,  let  us  suppose  that 
you  had  been  asked  to  prepare  a  speech  favoring  reci- 
procity with  Canada,  in  1911,  when  the  question  of 
reciprocity  was -before  tlie  two  countries.  Before  you 
could  j)roceed  witli  your  reasons  for  favoring  the  ar- 
rangement, you  would  have  to  ex])1niii  the  situation — the 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  IXTRODrCTION       55 

commercial  relations  of  the  two  comitries,  the  nature  of 
the  proposed  measures,  and  the  exact  meaning  of  any 
technical  terms  which  might  be  used.  Note  the  follow- 
ing fragment  as  an  appropriate  introduction  to  such  a 
speech. 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen : 

As  you  already  know,  we  are  here  tonight  to  discuss  the 
probable  economic  advantage  which  would  be  gained  by  the 
Ignited  States  if  the  proposed  reciprocity  agreement  with  Canada 
should  be  put  into  operation.  Being  a  good  Yankee,  I  am  inter- 
ested wherever  my  pocket-book  is  affected.  It  was  probably  this 
sort  of  interest  which  led  me  to  undertake  a  most  careful  study 
of  the  trade  agreement  under  consideration ;  and  I  believe  I 
have  delved  deeply  enough  to  be  able  to  make  it  clear  that  you 
and  I  will  profit  by  the  kind  of  reciprocity  contemplated.  There 
is,  in  my  mind,  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  cost  of  living  will 
be  reduced  to  an  appreciable  extent  while  our  manufactures  and 
other  industries  will  be  stimulated. 

Let  us  survey  the  situation  which  confronts  the  nation.  The 
United  States  and  Canada  are  aliout  equal  in  size,  but  very  dis- 
similar in  development  and  wealth.  That  each  derives  some 
benefit  from  the  industry  of  the  other  is  evident  from  the  great 
trade  which  now  passes  across  the  border.  The  United  States 
sells  Canada  nearly  twice  as  much  as  Great  Britain,  our  nearest 
competitor  for  her  trade,  while  we  purchase  from  Canada  almost 
as  much  as  does  the  mother  country.  Last  year,  Canada  sent 
us  approximately  $98,000,000  worth  of  goods,  while  she  bought 
about  .$216,000,000  worth  from  this  country.  At  present  the 
commerce  is  carried  on  under  artificial  and  difficult  conditions. 
Each  country  imposes  duties  of  varying  severity  upon  the  goods 
of  the  other  which  seek  entrance.  For  example,  Canada  charges 
a  duty  of  25'/;  of  the  value  on  all  live  cattle  sold  by  American 
ranchers  to  Canadians,  12  cents  a  bushel  on  wheat  and  40  cents 
a  barrel  on  apples;  while  the  United  States  shuts  out  the  same 
goods  coming  in  from  Canada  by  a  tax  of  27%  on  cattle,  25 
cents  a  bushel  on  wheat  and  25  cents  a  bushel  on  apples.  It  is 
now  proposed  to  remove  these  barriers  to  free  trade  between 


56  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

the  two  countries,  in  the  case  of  some  articles  and  materially 
to  reduce  it  in  the  case  of  others.  What  would  be  the  effect  of 
lowering  the  commercial  wall,  upon  the  welfare  of  the  United 
States,  and  therefore  upon  us? 

What  we  mean  by  economic  welfare  or  benefit  may  need  some 
slight  explanation.  The  economic  man  of  modern  society  does 
two  things;  he  produces  goods  which  he  expects  the  rest  of 
society  to  consume,  and  he  consumes  goods  which  he  expects  the 
rest  of  society  to  produce.  A  country  secures  an  economic 
benefit  whenever  its  citizens  are  given  a  larger  opportunity  to 
use  their  productive  powers  to  advantage  and  Avhen  they  are 
enabled  to  consume  to  greater  satisfaction.  As  producers,  they 
look  for  wider  and  more  profitable  markets;  as  consumers,  they 
seek  cheaper  and  better  commodities.  I  believe  the  proposed 
arrangement  will  benefit  us  in  just  these  two  ways. 

Before  going  into  the  details  of  the  matter  let  us  get  a  clear 
idea  of  the  general  nature  of  the  agreement.  It  is  not  to  take 
the  form  of  a  treaty,  but  both  nations  are  to  enact  its  various 
schedules  and  provisions  simultaneously  as  tariff  laws.  The 
agreement  provides  that  fishing  privileges,  hitherto  denied,  be 
granted  to  American  fishermen  in  Canadian  waters  and  makes 
tariff  provisions  for  certain  listed  goods  in  four  great  schedules. 
Schedule  A  enumerates  a  number  of  raw  commodities  such  as 
live  animals,  grain,  fish,  and  dairy  products,  as  well  as  a  small 
number  of  manufactured  articles— all  to  be  admitted  to  both 
countries  duty  free.  The  articles  in  schedule  B  are  either  par- 
tially the  result  of  a  manufacturing  process,  as  meats  and  flour, 
or  they  are  wholly  manufactured,  as  farm  implements,  cutlery, 
and  automobiles.  At  present  both  countries  put  very  high  duties 
on  these  goods.  Furthermore,  the  duties  are  not  uniform.  .The 
proposal  is  that  a  reciprocal  rate  be  put  on  every  article  men- 
tioned so  that  each  country  has  an  equal  chance  at  the  market 
of  the  other.  This  rate  is,  in  most  cases,  lower  than  the  one  now 
existing  on  cither  side  the  lino.  Schedule  C  contains  Canadian 
specialties  tiiat  are  to  have  the  American  duty  against  them  low- 
ered though  the  Canadian  rate  is  to  remain  unchanged.  Sched- 
-nle  D  does  the  same  thing  for  American  specialties  that  will 
presumably  be  shipped  to  Canada.  ^ 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  IXTRODUCTTON       57 

AVc  slinll  take  up  the  agreenu'iit  ai'ticlc  l)y  article  and  show 
that  tlie  i)r()visioiis  of  the  four  selie(hih'S  make  for  the  eeoiiomic 
advantage  of  the  majority  of  the  eitizens  of  the  United  States. 

Read  that  passage  again  and  note  the  following  char- 
acteristics : 

1.  The  opening  though  apparently  boastful  is  in  real- 
ity modest,  for  the  speaker  attributes  his  expert  knowl- 
edge not  so  much  to  personal  superiority  as  to  hard  work 
})rompted  by  money  interest. 

2.  The  attention  of  the  audience  is  secured  by  appeal- 
ing to  their  economic  interest.  This  is  reenforced  at  the 
end  of  each  paragraph. 

3.  Necessary  information  is  given  to  prepare  the  way 
for  a  later  argument  on  details.  Note  the  following  de- 
tailed arg-ument  (taken  from  the  body  of  the  same 
speech)  in  connection  with  Schedule  D  and  see  liow  much 
an  understanding  of  it  is  helped  by  the  general  informa- 
tion of  the  introduction. 

The  first  thing  to  notice  ahout  this  schedule  is  that  it  does  not 
affect  the  American  tariff  shutting  out  the  Canadian  goods.  It 
])rovides  only  that  the  enumerated  American  goods  going  into 
Canada  shall  be  let  in  at  a  reduced  rate.  Consequently  the 
lirmest  Protectionist  could  not  object  to  it.  No  intricate  argu- 
ment is  needed  to  show  that  this  lowering  of  the  barrier  will 
(  reate  a  wider  and  better  market  for  American  goods.  Thus  is 
il  a  benefit  to  the  United  States  as  a  producer;  it  will  give  more 
work  to  labor,  more  profit  to  American  managers  and  call  into 
use  more  American  cnyntal.  But  besides  the  general  advantage, 
a  knowledge  of  a  typical  article  emphasizes  the  desirability  of 
this  provision. 

Portland  cement  is  produced  in  the  United  States  to  a  value  of 
about  fifteen  times  the  product  of  Canada  (U.  S.,  $55,900,000; 
Canada,  $3,700,000.  See  1909  International  Year  Book).  The 
Itusiness,  however,  has  been  at  a  standstill  since  1907,  due  to  the 


58  EFFECTIVE  PFBLIC  SPEAKING 

failure  of  many  concerns  in  the  panic.  The  twelve  per  cent 
reduction  of  the  tariff  on  this  commodity  will  give  the  producers 
a  better  chance  to  sell  in  Canada^  Such  an  opening  up  of  a 
})etter  market  is  just  the  sort  of  helj)  the  industry  needs  to  put 
it  once  more  on  the  prosperous  footing  it  had  in  1906  and  insure 
its  still  greater  development.  Tlie  next  article  for  specific  con- 
sideration is  l)ituminons  coal.     *     *     * 

Tlie  information  in  the  introduction  displays  the  rela- 
tion between  the  two  countries  and  outlines  the  proposed 
change.  Without  this  knowledge,  the  detailed  argu- 
ments coukl  not  be  understood. 

4.  It  defines  the  meaning  of  "economic  benefit"  and 
exactly  designates  the  agreement  as  "simultaneous 
tariff  laws"  rather  than  "reciprocity  treaty."  This  is 
the  definition  of  terms. 

5.  It  tells  the  audience,  in  the  last  paragraph,  the 
plan  of  the  entire  speech. 

6.  It  definitely  states  the  proposition  or  object  of  the 
speaker,  namely,  to  demonstrate  that  the  pro])osed 
agreement  will  be  of  economic  benefit  to  the  United 
States. 

All  this  aids  the  audience  to  receive  and  understand 
the  message.  Every  speech,  however,  does  not  have 
such  material  covering  all  these  points  and  grouped  to- 
gether at  the  very  beginning.  We  shall  consider  each 
part  of  an  introduction,  to  determine  just  how  and  when 
information  should  be  used  and  wdien  omitted. 

(d)  Preparatory  information  is  not  necessary  when 
llic  audience  is  as  w^ell  acquainted  wdth  the  general  field 
"as  yourself.  For  instance,  if  an  army  surgeon  were  to 
read  before  a  medical  society  a  paper  on  the  prevention 
of  typhoid  by  means  of  the  new^  inoculation  treatment, 
he  would  not  have  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  illness 


PURPO.se  of  the  IXTRODrCTIOX  59 

or  the  technique  of  iiiocukitiiig'.  He  coiiKl  proceed  im- 
mediately to  a  discussion  of  the  effect  of  the  treatment, 
knowing-  that  those  listening-  would  have  a  good  general 
background  of  understanding.  But  if  he  were  to  make 
an  address  to  the  soldiers  themselves  to  convince  them 
that  they  ought  to  submit  to  inoculation,  then  he  would 
have  to  give  them  elementary  information  about  medicine. 
In  his  introduction  he  would  have  to  offer  a  simple  ex- 
planation of  the  causes  of  typhoid  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  disease  runs  its  course.  Then  he  would  have 
to  tell  how  inoculation  is  accomplished  and  wdiat  it  is 
supposed  to  do  to  the  organism.  After  that  the  soldiers 
might  be  expected  to  follow^  the  arguments  and  under- 
stand the  statistics  of  successful  treatment.  In  the  pas- 
sage about  reciprocity,  just  quoted,  we  see  a  treatment 
designed  for  a  popular  audience  and  not  for  a  board  of 
specialists  who  are  thoroughly  familiar  w^tli  tariff 
matters. 

Then  there  is  a  second  problem.  Shall  all  the  infor- 
mation be  given  at  the  beginning  or  shall  it  be  scattered 
with  the  arguments  throughout  the  body  of  the  speech? 
The  advantage  of  the  first  is  that  it  gives  a  good,  com- 
prehensive view  of  the  whole  subject.  Its  disadvantage 
is  that  parts  might  be  forgotten  when  the  portions  of 
the  development  most  related  to  them  are  reached.  To 
overcome  this  last  objection  and  yet  preserve  the  advan- 
tage of  the  general  view  at  the  start,  sometimes  it  is  ad- 
visable to  repeat  parts  of  the  information — in  less 
extended  form — when  special  points  are  reached  which 
call  for  their  recollection.  Notice  how  that  course  w^as 
pursued  in  the  detailed  argument  about  Portland  cement, 
when  the  provisions  of  Schedule  D  were  recalled 
(page  57). 


60  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(b)  Definition  of  tenns  also  depends  upon  tlie  famil- 
iarity of  the  audience  with  the  general  field  in  ^YhLch  the 
speech  is  included.  Yet  to  define  terms  at  all  times  is 
not  a  grave  offense,  and  it  sometimes  proves  a  safeguard 
against  misunderstanding.  A  speaker  (and  especially 
one  who  is  arguing  for  a  cause)  must  always  have  very 
clear  terms  for  his  ideas,  and  he  should  be  careful  that 
the  audience  gets  his  exact  meaning.  It  is  better  to  take 
the  chance  of  giving  a  definition  when  it  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  than  to  omit  it  when  it  may  be  needed.  Again, 
the  definitions  may  be  all  recorded  at  the  beginning,  or 
they  may  be  introduced  in  the  discussion  where  they  are 
most  needed. 

(c)  To  announce  the  plan,  or,  as  it  is  known  in  formal 
argiunent,  to  state  the  issues,  is  a  question  of  policy.  The 
advantage  of  the  course  rests  in  the  fact  that  the  audi- 
tors are  given  an  idea  of  the  end  in  view  and  the  road 
by  which  it  is  to  be  reached.  If  they  can  be  put  in  pos- 
session of  a  simple,  general  plan,  they  are  better  able  to 
follow  the  amplification  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the 
whole  message  in  mind.  The  ancient  rhetoricians 
called  this  part  of  the  speech  "the  partition."  Preachers 
of  the  old  school  were  very  fond  of  it  and  used  to  depress^' 
their  congregations  with  an  enumeration  of  the  firstly, 
secondly,  thirdly,  and  so  fortli,  which  were  to  be  treated 
in  the  sermon. 

This  last  reference  reminds  us  of  the  disadvantages  of 
the  partition,  or  statement  of  points.  It  may  discourage 
the  audience.  In  some  cases,  also,  it  may  rob  each  later 
portion  of  its  freshness  and  charm.  Certainly,  the  pos-. 
sibility  of  surprise  is  diminished.  Wherever  the  speaker 
is  addressing  an  audience  which  he  knows  is  unfriendly 
to  his  line  of  reasoning,  he  should  not  disclose  his  plan. 


PURPOSE  01^^  THE  INTRODUCTION  61 

but  should  let  it  develop  in  their  minds  as  he  establishes 
each  point.  A  captain  of  industry  trying  to  convince  a 
j;'roup  of  Socialist  workmen  of  the  reasonableness  of 
proiits — if  such  hardihood  can  be  imagined — sliould  keep 
his  plan  to  himself  and  endeavor  to  establish  his  con- 
tentions point  by  point.  So  also,  a  Socialist  trying-  to  win 
over  a  hostile  audience  to  his  belief  would  be  very  foolish 
to  announce  his  plan  of  procedure  beforehand.  It  would 
arouse  the  opposition  of  his  hearers  before  he  had  a 
chance  to  give  his  reasons.  From  these  illustrations  we 
see  that  the  announcement  of  the  plan  is  a  device  to  pro- 
mote a  clear  and  unified  grasp  of  the  entire  speech,  but  it 
must  be  used  with  care;  the  speaker  must  put  the  gain 
in  intellectual  grasp  in  the  balance  over  again  the  pos- 
sibility of  arousing  prejudice. 

(d)  The  statement  of  the  object  or  purpose  of  an  ad- 
dress may  also  be  made  only  after  careful  consideration. 
If  the  situation  is  favorable  at  the  ouiset,  to  a  confiding 
of  the  purpose  of  the  speaker,  if  it  seems  safe  to  state 
his  beliefs  or  subject  before  he  proves  its  reasonableness, 
then  to  do  so  makes  for  a  clear  grasp  of  the  development. 
Sometimes,  a  speaker  reserves  the  purpose  to  be  accom- 
plished until  the  end  of  the  address.  Again,  he  may 
never  reveal  it.  One  of  the  most  powerful  kinds  of  ad- 
dress is  that  which  influences  the  hearer  by  suggestion. 
The  mind  is  filled  with  the  material  which  will  work  it- 
self out  in  an  action  the  speaker  is  wise  enough  to  keep 
to  himself.  But  though  not  expressed,  the  purpose  must 
be  very  definitely  in  the  thought  of  the  speaker  to  guie.^ 
him  at  every  stage. 


62  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Summary  of  Introduction 

(a)  Part  to  secure  good  will — to  get  favorable  emo- 
tional state. 

(b)  Part  to  secure  attention  or  concentration. 

'^  (c)  Part    to    prepare    the    mind    to    understand — in- 
tellectual preparation. 

1.  General,  preliminary  information. 

2.  Definition  of  terms. 

3.  Partition  or  announcement  of  plan. 

4.  Statement  of  subject,  purpose,  or  belief. 

While  it  lias  been  made  clear  that  these  parts  are  not 
always  necessary  to  a  speech,  and  while  it  has  been 
shown  that  they  may  not  always  be  grouped  together  in 
the  beginning,  nevertheless  it  is  best  for  the  novice  to 
follow  the  summary  plan  just  given  above.  After  he  has 
become  somewhat  proficient  in  accomplishing  the  pur- 
poses here  set  forth,  in  a  well-defined  part  of  the  speech, 
lie  may  then  exercise  his  individuality  by  variations.  It 
is  true  that  few  expert  speech-makers  follow  a  formal 
plan  with  all  these  sub-divisions,  but  they  probably  did 
so  at  first.  Thorough  drill  of  this  sort  insures  coherence 
and  unity  when  flexibility  comes  as  the  fruit  of  experi- 
ence. But  the  fluent  and  easy  speaker  who  has  no  plan  is 
but  a  charming  and  ineffective  rambler.  He  usually 
leaves  the  audience  with  a  general  sense  of  pleasure  or 
stimulation  but  with  no  definite  ideas. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  say  that,  whether  these  parts 
of  the  introduction  are  each  taken  up  separately  or  not, 
their  functions  must  be  performed  somehow;  no  speaker 
can  impress  his  message  upon  the  audience  unless  he  has 
rendered  them  favorable  to  himself  and  his  message, 
unless  he  has  secured  and  held  thcMr  attention  and  uidess 


PURPOSE  OF  THE  INTRODUCTION       63 

he  has  given  them  an  adequate  preparation  for  the  under- 
standing of  the  speech. 

Assign MEXT  of  AVokk 

The  writton  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  sliould  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  your  notebook. 

First  Day. — You  have  read  through  the  lesson.  Now  studj^  it 
again  carefully,  mastering  its  contents.  Do  not  attempt  any 
of  the  exercises  until  after  the  second  reading. 

Second  Day. — Write  out  a  short,  startling  introduction  to  a 
speech  on  one  of  the  following  topics : 

1.  The  Rich  Man  in  America. 

2.  The  Practical  Influence  of  the  Church  on  Morality. 

3.  The  United  States  in  Mexico. 

4.  A  Poor  Plan's  Club — the  Saloon. 

5.  Napoleon. 

At  the  same  time,  keep  your  introduction  of  a  character  to 
incline  the  audience  favorably  toward  you. 

Third  Day. — AVrite  a  short  introduction  on  one  of  the  topics 
named  in  the  second  day's  work  or  on  some  other  topic  of 
interest  to  you,  using  the  promise-of-gain  method  of  securing 
attention.  State  the  kind  of  audience  you  imagine  you  are 
addressing. 

Fourth  Z)« (/.^Reproduce  orally  the  two  introductions  which  you 
wrote  in  the  second  and  third  days'  work.  Do  it  without 
notes.    Do  not  memorize. 

Fifth  Day. — AA^rite  a  full  introduction,  with  all  the  type  parts, 
for  a  speech  on  a  subject  of  interest  to  you.  Use  any  one  of 
the  following  suggestions,  or  you  may  select  a  topic  of  inter- 
est to  you : 

1.  The  laiited  States  ought  to  pay  a  sum  to  Colombia  to 

remove  any  ill-feeling  which  may  have  arisen  in  con- 
nection with  the  acquisition  of  sovereignty  over  the 
Canal  Zone. 

2.  The  Germans  who  fought  in  th(^  Civil  War. 


64  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

'A.  The  Freedom  of  Speech. 

4.  Patriotism. 

5.  Any  technical  subject  on  which  you  have  special,  knowl 

edge ;  the  speech  to  be  before  a  non-specialist,  mixed 

audience. 
With  your  outline  of  this  introduction  liefore  you,  develop  it 
orally  many  times.     Indeed,  do  the  planning  and  oral  amplifica- 
tion before  3'ou  write  it  out  in  final  form  in  your  notebook. 


TEST  Ql'ESTIOXS 

These  questions  are  for  the  stiuk'iit  to  use  in  testiii;jj 
his  kno\\ie(l<;-e  of  the  ])rincipk's  in  this  h-sson.  Tliey 
are  siinr/rslirr  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  ])raetical 
application  of  the  jirinci])les,  and  are  to  be  ^'l^^'^^l  ii^  ^^^6 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  Imagine  that  you  are  addressing  a  small  group  of  people. 
Explain  to  them,  so  they  will  understand,  the  three  major  pur- 
poses of  an  introduction. 

2.  Give  your  own  definition  of  attention.  Eecall  an  instance 
in  which,  with  relaxed  attention,  you  have  listened  to  a  speaker. 
Can  you  remember  what  he  said  ?  What,  then,  is  the  relation  of 
attention  to  memory 't 

3.  Recall  the  astonishing  exclamations  of  Beecher,  and  try  to 
remember  speakers  whom  you  have  heard  use  similar  devices. 

•4.  What  other  device  is  used  to  secure  a  different  kind  of 
attention?    What  kind  is  it?    What  is  its  advantage?. 

5.  What  is  the  appeal  to  gain  in  Patrick  Henry 's  introduction  ? 

6.  (a)  In  a  speech  to  sell  goods,  what  might  secure  attention? 
(b)  In  a  letter  applying  for  a  position,  what  might  secure 
attention?  (c)  In  a  speech  for  the  change  of  your  city  gov- 
ernment to  the  commission  form,  what  might  secure  attention? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  necessary  preliminary  information? 
What  effect  has  it  upon  the  reception  of  the  speaker's  direct 
message  ? 

8.  You  can  see  the  necessity  of  this  preliminary  information 
by  imagining  what  preliminary  questions  you  would  ask  a 
speaker  about  such  topics  as  Sixteen  to  One,  Branch  Banking, 
Recognition  of  Panama,  Paying  Indemnity  to  Colombia,  Asset 
Currency,  or  any  other  suliject  with  which  you  are  not  familiar. 

9.  When  is  a  careful  definition  of  terms  particularly  necessary  ? 

10.  Try  to  define  for  an  average  audience  the  following  terms : 
Efficiency,  workmanship,  courage,  ledgers,  balance  slieet,  sales 
talks,  etc.  Take  the  technical  terms  of  your  own  vocation  witli 
wliich  the  audience  may  not  be  familiar. 

65 


66  TEST  QUESTIONS 

11.  What  are  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of 
announcing  the  plan  of  the  speech  ? 

12.  What  are  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of 
announcing  the  object  or  purpose  of  the  speech? 

13.  Can  you  state  any  reasons  why  it  would  be  tactful,  in  a 
business  conference  with  a  manager,  for  you  to  introduce  pre- 
liminary information  in  the  most  unobtrusive  way  possible? 
What  risk  would  you  run  by  leaving  it  out  altogether  ? 

14.  Suppose  that  you  had  been  asked  to  prepare  a  speech 
against  reciprocity  with  Canada,  in  1911,  when  the  question  was 
before  the  two  countries.    Prepare  your  introduction. 


LESSON  5 

GENERAL   BASES    FOR   THE   ARRANGEMENT    OF    MATTER 
IN  THE   BODY   OF   THE    SPEECH 

By  this  time,  no  doubt,  the  student  has  inferred  that 
a  speech  is  always  planned  with  the  probable  mental 
state  of  the  audience  as  a  guide.  If  it  is  foreseen  that 
the  audience  is  likely  to  be  unfriendly  or  insufficiently 
informed,  the  speaker  casts  about  for  the  means  of 
remedying  these  deficiencies.  Furthermore,  if  he  dis- 
covers any  unforeseen  barriers  to  the  most  favorable 
reception  of  his  message,  when  he  faces  the  audience  or 
during  actual  delivery,  he  readjusts  himself  and  mod- 
ifies his  statements  so  as  to  mould  the  auditors'  minds 
to  a  state  of  favorable  feeling,  acute  attention,  and  intel- 
ligent insight. 

Since  it  is  most  generally  probable  that  such  efforts 
must  come  at  the  very  beginning,  we  have  considered 
them  as  natural  parts  of  an  introduction.  Yet  it  is  pos- 
sible that  the  speaker  cannot  always  prepare  for  every 
portion  of  his  entire  address  at  the  outset.  He  may 
have  to  make  many  little  or  subordinate  introductions  to 
new  points  as  they  arise  during  the  course  of  the  speech. 
Still,  even  though  scattered  throughout  the  discourse, 
these  eiTorts  are  introductory  in  character,  for  they  seek 
to  prepare  the  way  for  something  which  would  not  be 
received  without  them.  Understanding,  then,  that  the 
formal  introduction,  when  used,  may  be  re-enforced 
throughout  the  body  of  the  speech,  let  us  leave  the  intro- 

67 


68  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(luction  in  order  to   consider  the   arrangement   of  the 
body. 

General  Arrangement  of  the  Body  of  the  Speech 

Naturally  enough,  the  body  of  a  speech  differs  with 
every  occasion  and  theme.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  lay 
down  any  but  the  most  general  rules  for  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  divisions  of  the  message  proper.  In  a  later 
lesson,  we  shall  give  directions  concerning  the  details 
of  the  body  of  the  speech ;  just  now  only  the  larger  mat- 
ters of  general  arrangement  will  be  taken  up. 

If  the  address  be  very  short,  the  problem  is  not  a 
serious  one;  but  if  it  be  long,  much  depends  upon  the 
order  in  which  the  various  points  are  presented.  The 
introduction  may  promote  the  most  favorable  emotional 
response  and  prepare  for  the  easiest  intellectual  grasp, 
but  the  arrangement  of  the  body  must  be  depended 
upon  to  preserve  these  desired  ends.  Therefore,  in  de- 
termining the  sequence  of  material  in  the  body  of  the 
speech,  be  guided  by  some  plan  which  will  dovetail  with 
the  efforts  of  the  introduction.  Two  principles  for  gen- 
eral guidance  suggest  themselves : 

(1)  Follow^  the  natural  divisions  of  the  subject  which 
exist  because  of  the  way  things  hang  together  in  nature. 

(2)  Modify  or  adapt  this  order  to  meet  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  particular  audience  to  be  addressed. 

The  first  of  these,  if  it  can  be  followed,  insures  a  clear 
grasp  of  the  matter  just  as  it  is,  irrespective  of  any- 
one's bias.  The  second  takes  account  of  the  truth  that 
all  men  are  biased  and  must  have  their  peculiar  short- 
comings made  up  by  the  skill  of  the  speaker. 


THE  BODY  OF  THE  SPEECH  69 

(a)  Natural  Sequence  in  the  Body  of  the  Speech 

All  the  things  which  a  speaker  may  wish  to  include  in 
the  body  of  his  speech  have  a  natural  relationship;  this 
relationship  should  help  to  determine  the  order  of  pre- 
sentation. Typical  relationships  are  those  of  time, 
place,  magnitude,  and  causation.  Let  us  make  this 
clear. 

Relationship  of  time  is  the  most  simple.  If  we  wish  to 
narrate  a  series  of  events  which  followed  one  after  the 
other,  then  the  simplest  arrangement  of  details  is  to 
present  them  in  the  order  of  actual  occurrence.  Sup- 
pose your  speech  to  be  a  eulogy:  A  man's  life  is  to  be 
reviewed  and  appreciated.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
ideas  to  be  presented  to  the  audience — the  concrete  facts 
of  the  life  and  the  abstract  qualities  or  characteristics 
which  are  to  be  appraised.  Evidently  the  easiest  order 
in  which  to  offer  these  things  is  to  begin  w4th  the  man's 
ancestry,  then  tell  of  his  birth,  his  childhood,  his  early 
education,  his  young  manhood,  and  his  later  career,  and 
then  close  with  his  death.  This  is  simple,  chronological 
sequence. 

The  following  extract  from  Carl  Schurz's  eulogy  of 
Charles  Sumner,  delivered  in  Boston  Music  Hall,  April 
29,  1874,^  will  illustrate.  After  an  introduction  in  which 
he  spoke  of  the  nation's  loss  in  the  death  of  one  of  its 
great  senators,  the  orator  mentioned  his  own  friendship 
for  Sumner.  Then,  remarking  that  Americans  usually 
liked  to  speak  of  their  heroes  as  self-made  men,  he  said : 

But  not  such  a  life  was  that  of  Charles  Sumner.  He  was 
descended  from  good  old  Kentish  yeomanry  stock,  men  stalwart 
of  frame,  stout  of  heart,  who  used  to  stand  in  the  front  of  the 

1  Tn  a  memorial  volume  published  hy  order  of  the  Commonwealth 
ol  Massachusetts,  1874. 


70  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

fierce  battles  of  Old  England ;  and  the  first  of  the  name  who  came 
to  America  had  certainly  not  been  exempt  from  the  rough 
struggles  of  the  early  settlements.  But  already  from  the  year 
1723  a  long  line  of  Sumners  appears  on  the  records  of  Harvard 
College,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  love  of  study  had  long  been 
hereditary  in  the  family.  Charles  Pickney  Sumner,  the  Senator 's 
father,  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard,  a  lawyer  by  profession,  for 
fourteen  years  high  sheriff  of  Suffolk  County.  His  literary 
tastes  and  acquirements,  and  his  stately  politeness  are  still 
remembered.  He  was  altogether  a  man  of  high  respectability.  He 
was  not  rich,  but  in  good  circumstances,  and  well  able  to  give 
his  children  the  best  opportunities  to  study,  without  working  for 
their  daily  bread. 

Charles  Sumner  was  born  in  Boston,  on  the  sixth  of  January. 
1811.  At  the  age  of  ten,  he  had  received  his  rudimentary  training ; 
at  fifteen,  after  having  gone  through  the  Boston  Latin  School, 
he  entered  Harvard  College  and  plunged  at  once  with  fervor 
into  the  classics,  polite  literature,  and  history.  Graduated  in 
1830,  he  entered  the  Cambridge  Law  School.  Now  life  began 
to  open  for  him.  Judge  Story,  his  most  distinguished  teacher, 
soon  recognized  in  him  a  young  man  of  uncommon  stamp ;  and 
an  intimate  friendship  sprang  up  between  teacher  and  pupil, 
which  was  severed  only  by  death. 

He  began  to  distinguish  himself  not  only  by  the  most  ardu- 
ous industry  and  application,  pushing  his  researches  far  beyond 
the  text-books — indeed,  text-books  never  satisfied  him — but  by  a 
striking  earnestness  and  faculty  to  master  the  original  principles 
of  the  science,  and  to  trace  them  through  its  development. 

His  productive  labor  began,  and  I  find  it  stated  that  already 
then,  while  he  was  yet  a  pupil,  his  essays,  published  in  the 
"American  Jurist,"  were  "always  characterized  by  a 
breadth  of  view  and  accuracy  of  learning,  and  sometimes  by 
remarkably  subtle  and  ingenious  investigation." 

Leaving  the  law  school,  he  entered  the  office  of  a  lawyer  in 
Boston,  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  practice,  never  much  to  his 
taste.  Then  he  visited  Washington  for  the  first  time,  little 
dreaming  what  a  theatre  of  action,  struggle,  triumph,  and  suf- 
fering the  Jiational  city  was  to  become  for  him;   for  then  he 


THE  BODY  OP"  THE  SPEECH  71 

came  only  as  a  studious,  deeply  interested  looker-on,  who  merely 
desired  to  form  the  acquaintance  of  the  justices  and  practicing 
lawyers  at  the  bar  of  tlie  Supreme  Court.  He  was  received  with 
marked  kindness  by  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  and  in  later  years 
he  loved  to  tell  his  friends  how  he  had  sat  at  the  feet  of  that 
great  magistrate,  and  learned  there  what  a  judge  should  be. 

Having  been  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Worcester  in  1834, 
when  twenty-three  years  old,  he  opened  an  office  in  Boston ;  was 
soon  appointed  reporter  of  the  United  States  Circuit  Court ; 
published  three  volumes  containing  Judge  Story's  decisions, 
known  as  ' '  Sumner 's  Reports ' ' ;  took  Judge  Story 's  place  from 
time  to  time  as  lecturer  in  Harvard  Law  School ;  also  Professor 
Greenleaf's,  who  was  absent,  and  edited  during  the  years  1835 
and  1836  Andrew  Dunlap's  Treatise  on  "Admiralty  Practice." 
Beyond  this,  his  studies,  arduous,  incessant,  and  thorough, 
ranged  far  and  wide. 

Truly  a  studious  and  laborious  young  man  who  took  the 
business  of  life  earnestly  in  hand,  determined  to  know  some- 
thing, and  to  be  useful  to  his  time  and  country. 

But  what  he  had  learned  and  could  learn  at  home  did  not 
satisfy  his  craving.  In  1837  he  went  to  Europe,  armed  with  a 
letter  from  Judge  Story's  hand  to  the  law  magnates  of  England, 
to  whom  his  patron  introduced  him  as  "a  young  lawyer  giving 
promise  of  the  most  eminent  distinction  in  his  profession,  with 
truly  extraordinary  attainments,  literary  and  judicial,  and  a 
gentleman  of  the  highest  purity  and  propriety  of  character." 

This  was  not  a  mere  complimentary  introduction ;  it  was  the 
conscientious  testimony  of  a  great  judge  who  well  knew  his 
responsibility,  and  who  afterwards,  when  his  death  approached, 
adding  to  that  testimony,  was  frequently  heard  to  say,  "I  shall 
die  content,  as  far  as  my  professorship  is  concerned,  if  Charles 
Sumner  is  to  succeed  me. ' ' 

In  England,  young  Sumner,  only  feeling  himself  standing 
on  the  threshold  of  life,  was  received  like  a  man  of  already 
achieved  distinction.  Every  circle  of  a  society,  ordinarily  so 
exclusive,  was  open  to  him.  Often,  by  invitation,  he  sat  with 
the  judges  in  Westminster  Hall.  Renowned  statesmen  intro- 
duced him  upon  the  floor  of  Parliament.     Eagerly  he  followed 


72  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

the  debates,  and  studied  the  principles  and  practices  of  parlia- 
mentary law  on  its  maternal  soil,  where  from  the  first  seed-corn 
it  had  grown  up  into  a  magnificent  tree,  in  whose  shadow  a 
great  people  can  dwell  in  secure  enjoyment  of  their  rights. 
Scientific  associations  received  him  as  a  welcome  guest,  and  the 
learned  and  great  willingly  opened  to  his  winning  presence 
their  stores  of  knowledge  and  statesmanship. 

In  France  he  listened  to  the  eminent  men  of  the  Law  School 
in  Paris,  at  the  Sorbonne  and  the  College  de  France,  and  with 
many  of  the  statesmen  of  that  country  he  maintained  instruc- 
tive intercourse.  In  Italy  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  charms  of 
art,  poetry,  history,  and  classical  literature.  In  Germany  he 
enjoyed  the  conversation  of  Humboldt,  of  Ranke,  the  historian, 
of  Ritter,  the  geographer,  and  of  the  great  journalists,  Savigny, 
Thibaut,  and  ^littermaier.     *     *     * 

He  returned  to  his  native  shores  in  18-10,  himself  like  a 
heavily  freighted  ship,  bearing  a  rich  cargo  of  treasures  col- 
lected in  foreign  lands. 

He  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Boston;  but,  as  I  find 
it  stated,  "not  with  remarkable  success  from  a  financial  point 
of  view."  That  I  readily  believe.  The  financial  point  of  view 
was  never  to  him  a  fruitful  source  of  inspiration.  Again  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  more  congenial  task  of  teaching  at  the 
Cambridge  Law  School  and  of  editing  an  American  edition  of 
"Vesey's  Reports,"  in  twenty  volumes,  M'ith  elaborate  notes 
contributed  by  himself. 

But  now  the  time  had  come  when  a  new  field  of  action  was 
to  open  itself  to  him.  On  the  Fourth  of  July,  1845,  he  delivered 
before  the  city  authorities  of  Boston,  an  address  on  the  "True 
Grandeur  of  Nations."  So  far  he  had  been  only  a  student — 
a  deep  and  arduous  one,  and  a  writer  and  a  teacher,  but  nothing 
more.     On  that  day  his  public  career  commenced. 

This  chronological  order  is  continued  throughout  the 
long  speech.  But  it  must  be  noticed  that  Schurz  is  not 
satisfied  with  a  mere  encylopedic  statement  of  bare 
facts ;  he  makes  them  render  up  their  testimony  concern- 
ing the  character  of  Sumner.     Tliroughout  the  address, 


THE  BODY  OF  THE  SPEECH  73 

he  makes  them  show  that  Sumner  was  a  man  of  (a)  dil- 
igent application,  (b)  wide  learning,  and  (c)  high  ideals 
and  that  he  viewed  all  problems  from  the  lofty  eminence 
of  those  ideals. 

This  chronological  order  is  the  simplest  possible;  it 
therefore  imposes  least  upon  the  skill  of  the  speaker. 
But  it  has  the  danger  l)TT5mig^~l3arreir^incl  tiresome. 
Too  often  a  mere  string  of  colorless  happenings  is  re- 
corded. Although  the  simple  order  may  be  followed, 
use  some  judgment  in  the  matter  of  emphasizing  this 
event  and  subordinating  that,  and  of  extracting  an  in- 
terpretation of  the  spirit. 

Place  gives  us  the  next  hint  of  arrangement.  Ob- 
viously, it  is  useful  only  when  dealing  with  things  which 
distribute  themselves  in  space.  Place  dictates  that  when 
describing  a  magnificent  building,  we  begin,  let  us  say, 
from  the  top  and  proceed  downward  in  treating  the  de- 
tails, or  that  we  begin  at  the  bottom  and  go  up.  In  either 
case,  there  is  an  orderly  and  systematic  succession  of 
details  wdiich  tends  to  bring  about  a  unified  grasp  of  the 
whole. 

Sometimes  in  memorial  or  historical  addresses,  the 
sequence  in  time  is  set  aside  in  favor  of  a  grouping  ac- 
cording to  place.  Thus  if  one  w^ere  narrating  the  Civil 
War  campaign  of  1863,  instead  of  telling  of  each  battle 
on  the  date  it  occurred,  he  might  well  group  the  engage- 
ments somewdiat  as  follows:  (a)  The  campaign  in  the 
East  with  its  climax  at  Gettysburg,  (b)  the  campaign 
in  the  West  with  the  taking  of  Vicksburg  and  the  open- 
ing of  the  Mississippi  River,  (c)  the  war  in  the  middle 
ground  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  including  the  en- 
gagements at  Chattanooga  and  Chickamauga  and  the 
storming  of  IMissionary  Eidge. 


/   v_- 


74  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Such  an  arrangement  is  a  safeguard  against  confu- 
sion. On  the  other  hand,  to  enumerate  the  various  en- 
gagements of  the  year  according  to  the  calendar,  now 
one  in  the  East,  then  two  on  the  Mississippi,  back  again 
to  the  East,  then  three  in  close  succession  in  Kentucky, 
and  so  on,  would  give  only  the  perplexing  impression  of 
a  tangled  mass  of  details.  The  suggested  grouping 
makes  for  a  rational  and  clear  grasp  of  each  particular, 
properly  placed  in  an  organized  whole. 

Magnitude  is  the  qualitative  or  mathematical  rela- 
tionship. One  of  a  group  of  similar  things  is  smaller  or 
greater,  less  important  or  more  important,  than  another. 
Sometimes  it  is  wise  to  group  the  details  of  the  body  of 
a  speech  according  to  their  magnitude.  The  climax  is 
such  a  grouping,  for  it  begins  with  the  least  impressive 
and  then  proceeds  in  an  ascending  scale  to  the  most  im- 
pressive. Other  variations  based  on  a  difference  in 
magnitude  readily  suggest  themselves.  AVe  find  a  good 
example  of  climax  in  Burke's  speech  impeaching  War- 
ren Hastings.  The  whole  speech  is  too  long  to  quote, 
but  this  extract  from  the  conclusion  will  indicate  a  plan 
for  use  in  the  body  of  the  address : 

Therefore  it  is  with  confidence  that,  ordered  by  tlie 
Commons^ 

I  impeach  Warren  Hastings,  Esquire,  of  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors. 

1  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the  Commons,  in  Parliament 
assembled,  whose  parliamentary  trust  ho  has  betrayed. 

I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  all  the  Commons  of  Great 
Britain,  whose  national  character  he  has  dishonored. 

I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  India,  whose 
laws,  rights,  and  liberties  he  has  subverted;  whose  properties 
he  has  destroyed ;  whose  country  he  has  laid  waste  and  desolate. 


THE  BODY  OF  THE  SPEECH  75 

I  impeach  him  in  the  name  and  by  virtue  of  those  eternal 
laws  of  justice  which  he  has  viohited. 

I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  hunuin  nature  itself,  which 
he  has  cruelly  outraged,  injured,  and  oppressed,  in  both  sexes, 
in  every  age,  rank,  situation,  and  condition  of  life. 

Such  a  speech  would  proceed  from  the  proof  of  rela- 
tively minor  matters  of  civil  offense  to  a  climax  of  crim- 
inal outrage  far  beyond  the  pale  of  excuse  or  forgive-  / 

ness. _  / 

Causation  is  the  relation  which  exists  between  causes  ^ 

and  their  effects.  The  arrangement  may  be,  first  the 
causes  and  then  the  effects,  or  it  may  be  reversed.  In 
the  arguments  of  criminal  lawyers,  we  often  find  the 
body  of  the  speech  to  be  arranged  as  follow^s: 

(a)  Causes. 

1.  Motives. 

2.  Opportunity. 

(b)  Effect — the  crime. 

(c)  Traces  or  evidence  of  the  crime. 

Nearly  all  the  orators  who  spoke  of  the  Boston  Mas- 
sacre, used  the  cause-and-effect  arrangement.  No  doubt 
the  student  will  recollect  the  accounts  of  the  quartering 
of  British  troops  in  Boston  in  1770.  Between  them  and 
the  citizens  there  grew  up  a  strong  animosity  which  led 
to  minor  disturbances  and  to  frequent  brawls.  But  on 
the  evening  of  March  5,  1770,  a  violent  outbreak  oc- 
curred. The  troops  fired  upon  the  citizens,  killing  sev- 
eral. For  a  number  of  years,  the  anniversary  of  this 
event  was  celebrated,  one  of  the  features  of  the  day 
being  an  oration.  These  exercises  were  kept  up  until 
1783,  when  they  were  replaced  by  Fourth  of  July  exer- 
cises and  orations.  Most  of  the  Boston  Massacre 
speeches  discussed : 


76  p:ffective  public  speaking 

(a)  Causes  which  led  up  to  the  massacre. 

1.  Acts  of  despotism,  oppression,  and  taxes. 

2.  The  quartering  troops  in  the  town. 

(b)  Immediate  effect — the  massacre. 

(c)  Final  effect — the  attitude  of  resentment   on  the 

part  of  the  colonies  and  a  justification  of  senti- 
ments of  freedom. 
While  these  four  typical  relationships  of  time,  place, 
magnitude,  and  causation  are  very  fundamental,  still 
any  other  classification  of  the  way  your  matter  hangs 
together  in  nature  will  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  body  of  the  speech.  For  instance,  if  you  are 
to  support  a  bill,  like  the  act  favoring  reciprocity  with 
Canada,  mentioned  in  Lesson  Four,  you  may  take  the 
order  of  the  provisions  of  the  bill  as  the  plan  for  the 
body  of  your  speech.  In  this  case,  the  bill  has  four 
schedules ;  then  you  Uiay  make  the  body  of  your  speech 
correspond  to  them  in  sequence  by  taking  them  up  in 
regular  order — A,  B,  C,  D. 

Another  point  to  be  noted  is  that  while  the  great  di- 
visions of  3^our  discussion  imxy  follow  one  basis  of 
arrangement,  any  of  the  further  subdivisions  might 
follow  another.  Thus  in  appealing  to  Congress  to  give 
the  Filipinos  their  independence,  we  might  make  a 
primary  arrangement  as  follows : 

1.  The  Filipinos  are  now  able  to  govern  themselves. 

2.  To  retain  them  longer  is  financially  unprofitable. 

3.  To  retain  them  opens  us  to  easy  attack  in  time  of 

war. 

4.  To  retain  them  longer  is  a  violation  of  our  national 

ideals  of  freedom. 
This  is   an  arrangement  according  to  magnitude  or 
importance  of  the  various  considerations.     But  the  sub- 


THE  BODY  OP  THE  SPEECH  77 

divisions  under  tliose  heads  niiglii  follow  one  of  the 
other  types.  Take  the  first  of  these  primary  divisions 
and  notice  the  following  sub-arrangement  as  a  cause-to- 
effect  argument. 

1.  The  Filipinos  are  now  able  to  govern  themselves, 
because : 

(a)  Education  (cause)  has  raised  their  general  in- 

telligence (effect)  since  1898. 

(b)  English   as   a   common  language    (cause)    has 

brought  them  to  a  state  of  harmonious  co- 
operation (effect). 

(c)  A  measure  of  participation  in  the  general  gov- 

ernment   (cause)    and    complete    control    of 
local    governments     (cause)     has     rendered 
their   leaders   sufficiently  expert   to   conduct 
their  own  government  in  a  state  of  freedom 
(effect). 
These  and  other  plans  may  be  followed  in  the  arrange- 
ment.    Whatever  type  or  combination  you  may  select 
to  guide  you  in  the  ordering  of  details  in  the  body  of 
the  speech,  let  it  be  well  defined  and  calculated  to  reveal 
the  truth  as  it  actually  exists. 

(h)  Modified  Arranr/emenf  to  Suit  a  Particidar  Audience 

Yet  the  combination  of  things  as  they  normally  hang 
together  in  nature  is  not  always  the  best  gTiide  in  arrang- 
ing them  for  a  presentation  to  a  particular  audience. 
Sometimes  a  variation  from  the  natural  order  will  pro- 
mote an  easier  understanding  of  the  material.  Thus, 
in  the  reciprocity  speech,  from  which  extracts  were  pre- 
sented in  the  last  lesson,  we  find  these  words  immediately 
following  the  first  quotation  given : 


78  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

But  I  shall  not  follow  the  order  of  the  bill.  It  will  be 
simpler  to  begin  with  Schedule  D,  for  that  schedule  is  the 
easiest  to  comprehend  and  analyze.  Its  provisions  call  for  the 
least  change  from  the  existing  order  of  things.  It  enumerates 
articles  produced  extensively  in  the  United  States  and  to  a 
considerably  less  degree  or  not  at  all  in  Canada.  The  artich^s 
are  cement,  trees,  condensed  milk,  biscuits,  canned  fruits,  pea- 
nuts, and  bituminous  coal.  All  together  they  constitute  about 
one  quarter  of  the  volume  of  the  commodities  to  be  affected  by 
the  entire  agreement.  This  estimate  is  based  on  last  year's 
exportation  figures;  but  with  the  dropping  of  the  Canadian 
duty  on  them  as  proposed,  no  one  can  tell  to  what  enormous 
proportions  their  shipment  may  grow. 

Then  followed  the  second,  detailed  argument  quoted 
in  the  last  lesson.  Throughout  the  rest  of  this  speech, 
wdiicli  is  too  long  to  be  given  complete,  there  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  order  of  the  bill  to  promote  clearness  for 
a  popular  audience. 

Sometimes  the  diatural  order  is  not  the  most  tactful 
when  the  prejudices  or  feelings  of  the  particular  lis- 
teners are  considered.  In  pleading  for  Filipino  inde- 
pendence, it  might  be  wise  to  show  first  that  their  furthei- 
retention  would  mean  increased  financial  loss.  If  the 
money  side  of  such  a  question  can  be  so  disposed  of,  most 
audiences  are  likely  to  respond  to  altruistic  inducements. 
Or,  if  you  could  not  prove  a  financial  advantage  in  giving 
the  Filipinos"  their  freedom,  you  might  make  military 
safety  your  first  issue.  After  that  has  been  driven  home, 
the  question  of  their  fitness  to  govern  themselves  could 
])e  taken  up.  Naturally  these  modifications  need  not  be 
made  if  the  audience  is  without  bias,  and  the  nature  of 
the  modifications  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  exist- 
ing bias. 

Thus,  in  planning  the  body  of  his  address,  a  speaker 


THE  BODY  OF  THE  SPEECIT.        /  79 

endeavors  to  put  himself  in  the  phice  of  his  hearers.  He 
tries  to  estimate  their  beliefs,  their  prejudices,  their 
feelings.  He  asks  himself,  "How  should  I  want  to  be 
approached  upon  this  subject  if  I  felt  about  if  as  these 
people  do  \ ' ' 

Consider  the  following  plan  as  illustrating  how  the 
natural  order  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  prejudices  and 
the  beliefs  of  the  audience.  A  socialist  is  speaking  in 
behalf  of  his  cause  to  an  audience  opposed  to  the  socialist 
program.    An  excellent  order  of  procedure  is  as  follows : 

A.  Introduction 

Facts  and  figures  showing  the  startling  growth  of 
the  socialist  party  in  the  United  States.  Con- 
sequently it  is  to  the  interest  of  all  citizens  to 
study  a  propaganda  which  is  influencing  the 
political  thought  of  the  country. 

B.  Body 

1.  Answer  to  certain  objections  that  lie  in  the  mind 

of  the  audience. 

(a)  Socialism  does  not  propose  to  reduce  all  men 

to  a  level  of  mediocrity. 

(b)  Socialism  does  not  mean  anarchism. 

(c)  Socialism  does  not  mean  agnosticism. 

(d)  Socialism  does  not  propose  to  abolish  pri- 

vate ow^nership  entirely. 

2.  The  common  nse  by  society  of  the  fundamental 

socialistic  principles. 

(a)  They  are  used  in  charitable  institutions. 

(b)  They  are  used  in  mutual  insurance  compa- 

nies. 

(c)  They  are  used  in  public  ownersliip  of  post 

office. 


80  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(d)   They  are  used  in  profit-sharing  e  x  p  e  r  i  - 
nieiits. 
3.  The  constructive  program  of  socialism. 

(a)  Socialism  aims  to  secure  equality  of  oppor- 

tunity. 

(b)  Socialism  aims  to  give  labor  its  share  of  the 

profits  of  industry. 

(c)  Socialism  aims  to  secure  the  public  owner- 

ship of  the  natural  monopolies  of  produc- 
tion and  distribution. 
C.  Conclusion 

Therefore  it  is  advisable  for  all  thoughtful  citizens 
to  accept  the  doctrine  or  at  least  give  it  further, 
careful  consideration. 
Naturally  an  opponent  of  socialism  would  take  just  the 
reverse  course. 

SUMMAEY 

Thus,  we  seek  to  plan  the  body  of  the  speech  so  that 
all  its  material  will  grow  up  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer 
in  a  manner  most  calculated  to  make  him  understand  it 
as  it  is  understood  by  the  speaker  himself. 

Careful  arrangement  is  the  device  which  he  uses  to  suit 
the  limited  understanding  or  the  prejudiced  feelings  of 
the  auditors.  It  aims  to  preserve  during  the  piecemeal 
delivery  of  the  message  all  the  advantage  gained  by  a 
successful  introduction.  The  type  arrangements  sug- 
gested have  been : 
A.  Follow  the  order  of  natural  relationship: 

1.  According  to  time — esjiecially  in  narrative  work. 

2.  According  to  place — especially  in  description. 

3.  According  to  magnitude   or  impressiveness — espe- 

cially in  appeals  to  action. 


THE  BODY  OF  THE  SPEECH  81 

4.  According  to  cause  and  effect — especially  in  argu- 

ment. 

5.  According  to  any  special  plan  inherent  in  the  topic. 
B.  Modify  this  order  to  accommodate  the  peculiarities 

of  the  particular  audience : 

1.  Peculiarities  of  limited  understanding. 

2.  Peculiarities  of  bias  or  emotional  opposition. 

Assignment  of  Work 


The  written  exorcises  in  this  entire  lesson  should  he 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  voui-  notebook. 


First  Day. — Read  the  lesson  again  carefully  to  master  its  con- 
tents. Answer  the  test  questions  appended,  to  determine 
if  you  have  grasped  the  ideas  to  be  learned. 

Second  Day. — In  the  speech  of  Garfield  (Lesson  3,  page  33), 
what  type  arrangement  is  used  from  the  first  star  (*)  to 
the  second  stars  (**)  ?  What  tj^pe  is  used  from  the  twci 
stars  to  the  end?  Study  the  Conkling  speech  (Lesson  2, 
page  20)  again.  Its  body  treats,  first,  a  need,  and,  second. 
a  man  to  meet  the  need.  What  type  plan  is  this?  What 
IS  the  plan  of  the  subdivisions  under  the  ma/i-division  ? 

Third  Day. — Take  the  following  plans;  modify  them  to  suit 
some  special  audience ;  add  the  necessary  introductions  and 
develop  them  orally.  Do  this  at  first  with  the  notes  before 
you  and  then  with  the  outline  kept  in  the  mind  only. 

I.  Abraham  Lincoln. 

(a)  His  physical  nature. 

(b)  His  mental  nature. 

(c)  His  spiritual  nature. 

II.  The  ]\riners'  Strike  in  Colorado  (1914). 

(a)  Causes  of  the  trouble. 

(b)  Actions  of  both  sides  during  the  strike. 

(c)  A  basis  of  settlement. 


82  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

III.  Reorganization  of  the  department  or  business  in  which 

you  are  employed.     (Make  your  own  plan  through- 
out.) 

IV.  Causes    and    Conduct    of   the    Mexican   War    of    18-47. 

Speech  in  commemoration  of  those  who  died  in  that 
war.      (Make  your  own  plan  throughout.)     For  ex- 
ercise purposes,  a  brief  account  of  the  war  can  be 
had  in  any  good  encyclopoedia.     Consult  one  in  the 
nearest  library.     For  a   finished   speech,   the   matter 
should  be  read  up  most  thoroughly. 
Fourth  and  Fifth  Days. — Taking  as  your  model,  the  portion 
of  Schurz's  "Eulogy  of  Sumner"  in  this  lesson,  construct 
a  eulogy  of  one  of  the  following  or  of  some  other  great  man 
with  whose  life  you  are  familiar. 

(a)  Alexander  Hamilton. 

(b)  Karl  Marx. 

(c)  Henry  George. 

(d)  Daniel  Webster. 

(e)  Robert  E.  Lee. 

Supplement  the  plan  you  construct  with  a  statement  of  the 
type  followed.  //  ijou  wish,  you  may  also  prepare  an  amplifica- 
tion of  the  outline.  But  do  not  get  the  idea  that  all  speeches 
must  be  first  written  out.  Rather  cultivate  the  habit  of 
developing  your  outlines  orally. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

Tlieso  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testinji 
liis  knowle<l<ie  of  the  principles  in  tliis  lesson.  They 
are  /iiififiesfirc  merely,  dealing  largely  with  tlie  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  Why  should  the  body  of  a  speech  be  carefully  planned? 

2.  What  is  there  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  lesson  to  lead 
you  to  believe  that  no  speaker  can  attain  the  highest  success 
unless  he  develops  the  power  of  easy,  extemporaneous  coni- 
I)osition  ?  In  what  way  is  a  man  who  is  confined  to  what  he  has 
memorized,  limited? 

3.  How  definitely  can  we  lay  down  rules  for  the  body  of  a 
sp;ceh? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  "natural  order"  of  presentation? 

5.  Why  are  the  relationsliips  of  time,  place,  magnitude,  and 
""causation  called  typical  relationships? 

6.  Give  orally  a  clear  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  each  of 
tliese  four  terms.     Imagine  that  you  are  addressing  an  audience. 

7.  AVhat  do  you  think  of  Carl  Schurz's  style?  Is  it  flowery? 
Is  it  clear?    If  it  is  a  pleasing  style,  why? 

8.  Suppose  that  Schurz  had  taken  magnitude  of  characteris- 
tics as  the  basis  of  his  plan  so  that  it  would  be  as  follows : 

I.  Sumner  was  a  man  of  pleasing  presence. 
II.  He  was  always  a  most  diligent  student. 
III.  He  was  a  man  of  high  ideals. 

lY.  He  made  service  to  mankind,  guided  by  these  ideals, 
his  life  work. 
What  would  have  been  the  basis  for  the  arrangement  of  the 
matter  in  each  of  the  subdivisions? 

9.  What  advantage  is  there  in  giving  all  the  effects  before 
coming  to  the  causes?  What  are  the  disadvantages?  What 
advantage  is  there  in  reversing  the  order?  (The  answer  to  this 
is  not  expressed  in  the  lesson-,  it  is  just  a  question  to  set  you 
thinking.) 

83 


84  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

10.  AVhat  peculiarities  of  an  audience  soixietimes  call  for  con- 
sideration in  planning  the  body  of  the  speech?  Recall  the 
outline  for  a  Socialist  address.  How  does  the  plan  of  the 
speech  suit  peculiarities  in  the  audience?  How  might  you  plan 
a  prohibition  speech  for  a  typical  German  audience?  How 
plan  a  "personal  freedom"  speech  for  an  audience  of  clergy- 
men ? 

11.  Describe  some  other  specific  speech  occasions  where  the 
speaker  would  have  to  modify  his  plan  because  of  the  nature 
of  his  audience. 


LESSON  6 

THE    CONCLUSION 

Recapitulation  of  Other  Divisions  of  the  Speech 

Having  discussed  the  arrangement  of  the  introduction 
and  of  the  body  of  a  speech,  we  now  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion. Possibly  it  might  be  well  to  pause  for  a  time 
to  consider  the  origin  of  the  standard  divisions  of  a 
speech  and  to  exi:»lain  some  terms  which  are  constantly 
met  in  the  literature  on  the  subject. 

History  reports,  as  the  first  writer  on  public  speaking, 
one  Corax  who  lived  in  Sicily'when  that  island  was  a 
colony  of  ancient  Greece.  His  book,  known  as  "The 
Art"  {rexi'rj),  appeared  about  446  years  before  Christ. 
It  was  he  who  first  gave  rules  for  the  arrangement  of 
the  parts  of  a  speech.  Although  Aristotle  and  later 
writers  improved  on  his  work,  still  through  all  the  ages 
his  general  ideas  have  been  accepted.  Modern  students 
have  added  to  our  understanding  of  why  this  or  that 
should  be  done  in  a  speech,  but  they  have  contributed 
but  little  to  the  hoiv. 

Corax  named  five  great  divisions  of  a  speech:  (1) 
the  proem  or  opening;  (2)  the  narration  or  statement 
of  facts;  (3)  the  argument  proper;  (4)  subsidiary  re- 
marks; and  (5)  the  peroration,  or  close.  Let  us  take 
up  these  terms  and  see  how  they  correspond  with  others 
which  are  sometimes  employed  and  most  especially  with 
those  which  we  ourselves  use. 

The  Greek  w^ord  proem  designates  that  part  of  our 
85 


86 


EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


introduction  which  tries  to  get  a  favorable  emotional 
response,  while  the  second  division  of  Corax,  the  narra- 
tion, is  very  similar  to  the  portion  which  we  look  upon 
as  necessary  to  give  facts  to  help  the  understanding 
of  the  message  proper.  There  is  another  word,  more 
common  than  proem,  which  is  often  used.  It  is  the 
Latin  word  exordium.  It  also  carries  with  it  the  notion 
of  an  opening  which  seeks  pleasant  relationships.  It 
does  not  designate  the  part  with  the  educational  func- 
tion. Therefore  our  term,  introduction,  covers  all  that 
is  meant  by  proem  and  exordium,  and  more.  The  fol- 
lowing comparison  shows  all  the  parts  given  by  Corax 
and  the  standard  rhetoricians,  as  well  as  the  simpler 
treatment  we  have  adopted : 


Corax 

Standard 

Simplified 

1. 

Proem 

1. 

Exordium 

A. 

Introduction 

2. 

Narration 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Narration 
Partition 
Definition 
Statement  of 
Object 

3. 

Argument 

6. 

Argument 

B. 

Body 

4. 

Subsidiary   i-e-   7. 

Digression 

marks 

5. 

Peroration 

8. 

Peroration 

C. 

Conclusion 

Notice  that  we  have  not  mentioned  digression  or  sub- 
sidiary remarks  as  a  division  of  the  speech.  At  best 
such  a  portion  is  but  a  form  of  literary  amplification  or 
relief  which  is  included  in  tlie  treatment  of  the  body  ol 
the  speech.  It  is  not  legitimately  a  main  division  of  the 
well-planned  speech. 


THE  CONCLUSION  87 

iNTRODUCnON  TO  THE  StUDY  OF  THE  CONCLUSION 

Now  Ave  come  to  a  detailed  treatment  of  the  last  part 
of  the  speech,  or  the  conchision.  To  be  sure,  sometimes 
there  is  no  formal  conclusion,  for  none  is  either  neces- 
sary or  apin-oi)riate.  In  such  a  case,  the  speaker  is 
concerned  only  with  the  problem  of  saying  his  last  words 
gracefully  and  precisely  and  then  sitting  down.  But 
now  we  shall  treat  the  conclusion  as  a  definite  division 
of  the  speech  where  it  is  a  necessary  and  eifective  part. 
The  old  term  peroration  suggests  a  highly  emotional 
flight  of  oratory.  Sometimes  such  an  outburst  is  a  suit- 
able and  desirable  form  of  ending,  but  the  conclusion 
should  by  no  means  always  be  of  this  character.  Fur- 
thermore, even  when  it  may  have  such  a  nature,  it  may 
also  have  something  else  connected  with  a  ditTerent  func- 
tion. Just  as  the  exordium,  or  feeling  part,  of  the  intro- 
duction does  not  necessarily  complete  all  the  introduc- 
tory effort,  so  the  peroration,  or  fervid  part,  is  not  all 
the  conclusion. 

General  Purpose  of  the  Conclusion 

It  has  been  well  said  that  the  last  part  of  a  speech  to 
be  worked  out  is  the  introduction.  We  may  add  that 
the  first  part  to  have  in  mind  is  the  conclusion.  It  is 
nearest  to  what  you  are  aiming  to  accomplish ;  it  drives 
home  your  purpose.  Therefore,  the  conclusion  is  the 
part  you  must  conceive  first ;  you  are  building  toward  it 
throughout  your  whole  speech.  The  introduction  is 
farthest  from  your  real  object.  It  is  put  in  as  a  neces- 
sary concession  to  the  peculiarities  and  prejudices  of 
your   audience.     From   an  ideal  point   of  view — where 


88  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

you  proceed  in  the  straightest  line  to  the  heart  of  your 
purpose — the  introduction  is  an  unfortunate,  though  nec- 
essary, waste  of  time. 

A  good  conclusion  should  accomplish  two  things:  (1) 
it  should  concentrate  all  the  impressions  of  the  entire 
speech  so  that  the  audience  gets  them  in  combined,  uni- 
fied force;  and  (2)  it  should  apply  the  message  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  the  audience  feel  as  you  want  them  to 
feel  or  do  what  you  wan!  them  to  do.  It  should  act  as  a 
burning  glass  to  concentrate  all  the  rays  to  a  point 
where  they  can  do  the  maximum  work  and  make  the 
deepest  impression. 

(a)  The  Conclusion  as  a  Sunniiari/ 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  speech  has  been  a  long,  care- 
ful, detailed  argument.  Every  statement  has  been  most 
thoroughly  backed  up  and  proved.  During  the  course  of 
the  speech  the  listeners  have  been  paying  attention  to 
details.  They  have  been  saying  to  themselves:  "Yes, 
that  is  true";  "Well,  he  ought  to  give  more  evidence 
there";  "Ah,  noAv  he  has  supported  his  statement"; 
and  so  on.  They  have  been  checking  up  the  points  as 
they  were  presented  and  amplified.  Such  an  attention 
to  details  makes  the  hearer  forget  the  general  trend 
of  the  arg-ument  and  even  dims  his  recollection  of  the 
details  other  than  those  in  the  focus  of  attention.  Con- 
sequently, at  the  end  of  such  an  argument,  it  is  well  to 
gather  together  all  the  established  conclusions,  unclouded 
by  the  details  of  proof,  and  ])resciit  them  grouped  so 
that  their  combined  force  is  a])])arent.  As  the  auditor 
hears  the  great  issues  marshaled  in  review,  his  mind 
interprets   them   and  he   accepts   tln^n   because   of   the 


THE  CONOLTTSION  89 

proof  previously  applied.  What  was  scattered,  is  now 
c'oinbined. 

The  Formal  Siimmary. — The  formal  summary  corre- 
sponds in  content  with  the  statement  of  plan  or  issues 
in  the  introduction;  it  usually  dilTers  in  stjde  of  treat- 
ment. Thus,  if  one  were  to  make  a  speech  in  favor  of 
the  closed  shop,  he  might  say  in  his  introduction:  "I 
intend  to  show  three  things :  That  the  closed  shop  is 
beneficial  to  workman  inside  and  outside  the  union,  that 
the  closed  shop  benefits  the  employer,  and  that  it  benefits 
the  consuming  public."  Then,  after  elaborately  prov- 
ing each  item  in  detail,  he  might  summarize  in  the  con- 
clusion as  follows:  "Therefore,  the  closed  shop  not 
only  changes  workmen  from  machines  to  human  beings, 
but  it  makes  them  better  agents  of  production,  thus  giv- 
ing the  employer  more  goods  for  each  unit  of  labor  he 
hires.  It  raises  the  standard  of  employment  and  pay 
for  all  men  whether  they  be  organized  or  not.  The  con- 
suming public  is  able  to  purchase  commodities  of  a 
higher  grade,  produced  in  steady  flow  to  meet  the  demand 
and  never  interfered  with  by  strikes  or  other  disagree- 
ments between  the  master  and  the  man.  All  factors  of 
production  and  consumption  working  together  in  this 
manner  make  for  the  happiness  and  progress  of  the 
race. ' ' 

Notice  the  summary  used  by  Burke  in  his  speech 
impeaching  War: en  Hastings,  page  74  of  Lesson  5. 

The  poorest  k'nd  of  summary  is  the  mere  repetition  of 
the  issues  as  given  in  the  introduction.  If  such  a  state- 
ment has  been  made  in  the  introduction  and  a  summary 
seems  desirable,  then  it  should  treat  the  considerations 
from  a  different  angle  or  light  them  up  with  feeling 


90  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

which  could  not  properly  have  been  shown  at  the  out- 
set. 

The  following  concluding  v/ords  of  Wendell  Phillips' 
eloquent  eulogy  of  Daniel  O'Connell  give  an  excellent 
summary  colored  with  feeling. 

For  thirty  restless  and  turbulent  years  he  stood  in  front 
of  them  (the  Irish  people)  and  said,  "Remember,  he  that  com- 
mits a  crime,  helps  the  enemy."  And  during  that  long  and 
fearful  struggle,  I  do  not  remember  one  of  his  followers  ever 
being  convicted  of  a  political  offence,  and  during  this  period, 
crimes  of  violence  were  very  rare.  There  is  no  such  record  in 
our  history.  Neither  in  classic  nor  in  modern  times  can  the 
man  be  produced  who  held  a  million  of  people  in  his  right 
hand  so  passive.  It  was  due  to  the  consistency  and  unity  of 
a  character  that  had  hardly  a  flaw.  I  do  not  forget  your  sol- 
diers, orators,  or  poets, — any  of  your  leaders.  But  when  I 
consider  O'Connell's  personal  disinterestedness — his  rare,  brave 
fidelity  to  every  cause  his  principles  covered,  no  matter  how 
unpopular,  or  how  embarassing  to  his  main  purpose, — that 
clear,  far-reaching  vision,  and  true  heart,  which,  on  most  moral 
and  political  questions  set  him  so  much  ahead  of  his  times;  his 
eloquence,  almost  equally  effective  in  the  courts,  in  the  senate, 
and  before  the  masses;  that  sagacity  which  set  at  naught  the 
malignant  vigilance  of  the  whole  imperial  bar,  watching  for 
thirty  years  for  a  misstep ;  when  I  remember  that  he  invented 
his  tools,  and  then  measure  his  limited  means  with  his  vast 
success,  bearing  in  mind  its  nature ;  when  I  see  the  sobriety  and 
moderation  with  which  he  used  his  measureless  power,  and  the 
lofty,  generous  purpose  of  his  whole  life, — I  am  feady  to  affirm 
that  he  was,  all  things  considered,  the  greatest  man  tlie  Ii-ish 
race  ever  produced. 

The  entire  speech  is  too  long  to  print  here  in  full. 
But  the  student  would  do  well  to  read  it  all,  if  accessible, 
as  an  example  of  eulogy  and  to  note  how  the  summary 


THE  CONCLUSION  91 

just  quoted  drives  home  the  combined  impressions  (>f 
the  whole  speech. 

The  summary  is  usually  more  justitied  if  the  issues 
or  plan  have  not  been  announced  in  the  introduction.  In 
short  speeches,  it  is  obvious  that  a  formal  and  detailed 
summary  is  unnecessary.  So  also  in  humorous  speeches 
where  the  purpose  is  general  good  feeling  rather  than 
concise  grasp  of  an  organized  message,  the  summary 
as  illustrated  may  be  omitted. 

The  Short,  Crisp  Summary. — Sometimes  the  formal 
summary  enumerating  all  issues  is  omitted,  but  a  short, 
crisp,  or  epigrammatic  resume  takes  its  place.  Again, 
the  terse  summary  is  used  to  supplement  the  formal  one. 
It  puts  the  whole  contention  in  a  nutshell.  After  his  long 
argument  about  the  actions,  political  and  military,  of 
Great  Britain,  Patrick  Henry  crisply  summarized  his 
call  to  arms  (just  before  making  the  passionate  appeal) 
with  the  words :  "We  must  fight!  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  must 
fight.  An  appeal  to  arms  and  the  God  of  hosts  is  all 
that  is  left  us." 

Senator  Elihu  Root  summarized  in  a  very  terse  and 
effective  way  his  speech  advocating  the  repeal  of  the 
bill  giving  United  States  coast-w^ise  vessels  an  advantage 
in  Panama  Canal  tolls.  After  proving  that  such  a  pref- 
erence to  our  vessels  was  in  violation  of  our  solemn 
promises  in  two  treaties  with  Great  Britain — treaties 
which  we  ourselves  sought  to  contract,  and  after  show- 
ing that  we  have  agreed  to  arbitrate  such  differences  in 
matters  of  treaty  interpretation  with  Great  Britain,  he 
said:  "Mr.  President,  there  is  but  one  alternative  con- 
sistent with  self-respect.  We  must  arbitrate  the  in- 
terpretation of  this  treaty  or  we  must  retire  from  the 
position  we  have  taken." 


92  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(h)  Conchision  as  an  Application  or  Pcioratiun 

But  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  speech  is  not 
always  the  whole  conclusion.  Often  one  wishes  to  make 
a  general  application  of  the  message,  draw  a  moral,  or 
bring  the  whole  close  to  the  life  and  feelings  of  the  audi- 
ence. This  is  bringing  it  home  to  them.  Note  the  con- 
clusion of  Carl  Schurz's  speech  on  ''True  Americanism," 
delivered  at  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  in  1859. 

Sir,  I  was  to  speak  on  Republicanism  in  the  West,  and  so 
I  did.  This  is  Western  Republicanism.  These  are  its  principles, 
and  I  am  proud  to  say  that  its  principles  are  its  policies.  These 
are  the  ideas  which  have  rallied  around  the  banner  of  liberty 
not  only  the  natives  of  tlie  soil,  but  also  an  innumerable  host 
of  Germans,  Scandinavians,  Scotchmen,  Frenchmen,  and  a 
goodly  number  of  Irishmen  also.  And  here  I  tell  you,  those 
are  mistaken  who  believe  that  the  Irish  heart  is  devoid  of  those 
noble  impulses  which  will  lead  him  to  the  side  of  justice,  where 
he  sees  his  own  rights  respected  and  unendangered.  (Applause.) 
Under  this  banner,  all  the  languages  of  civilized  mankind  are 
spoken;  every  creed  is  protected;  every  right  is  sacred.  There 
stands  every  element  of  Western  society,  with  enthusiasm  for 
a  great  cause,  with  confidence  in  each  other,  with  honor  to 
themselves.  This  is  the  banner  floating  over  the  glorious  valley 
which  stretches  from  the  Western  slope  of  the  Alleghanies  to 
the  Rocky  ]\Iountains— that  valley  of  Jehosaphat,  where  the 
nations  of  the  world  assemble  to  celebrate  the  resurrection  of 
human  freedom.  (Tremendous  rpplause.)  The  inscription  on 
the  banner  is  not,  "Opposition  to  the  Democratic  party  for 
the  sake  of  placing  a  new  set  of  men  in  office";  for  this  battle 
cry  of  speculators,  our  hearts  have  no  response.  Nor  is  it 
"Restriction  of  slavery  and  restriction  of  the  right  of  suffrage," 
for  this — l)elieve  my  words,  I  entreat  you — this  would  be  the 
signal  for  deserved,  inevitable,  and  disgraceful  defeat.  But  the 
inscription  is  "Liberty  and  equal  rights,  common  to  all  as  the 


THE  CONCLUSION  93 

air  of  Heaven — Liberty  and  equal  rights,  one  and  inseparable." 
(Prolonged  cheers.) 

AVith  this  banner  we  stand  before  the  world.  In  this  sign — 
in  this  sign  alone  and  no  other — there  is  victory.  And  thus,  sir, 
we  mean  to  realize  the  great  cosmopolitan  idea,  upon  which  the 
existence  of  the  American  nation  rests.  Thus  we  mean  to  ful- 
fill the  great  mission  of  true  Americanism — thus  we  mean  to 
answer  the  anxious  question  of  down-trodden  humanity — 
■'Plas  man  any  faculty  to  be  free  and  to  govern  himself?"  The 
answer  is  a  triumphant  "Aye,"  thundering  into  the  ears  of 
tlie  despots  of  the  old  world  that  "a  man  is  a  man  for  a'  that" — 
proclaiming  to  the  oppressed  that  they  are  held  in  subjection 
on  false  pretenses,  cheering  the  hearts  of  the  despondent  friends 
of  man  with  consolation  and  renewed  confidence. 

This  is  true  Americanism,  clasping  mankind  to  its  great 
heart.     Under  its  banner  we  march ;  let  the  world  follow. 

Here  the  particular  points  which  he  developed  in  the 
l)ody  of  his  speech  are  applied  and  coupled  with  certain 
ideals  and  sentiments  in  which  Americans  take  pride. 
The  specific  cases  are  dropped  and  the  oratory  branches 
out  into  broad  and  almost  poetic  fields  of  universal  and 
undying  interest.  It  is  this  tendency  to  look  beyond  the 
narrow  particulars  of  the  immediate  subject  to  its  wider 
applications,  which  makes  perorations  so  poetic  and  so 
attractive  for  declamatory  purposes. 

Sometimes,  this  broadening  of  the  treatment  takes  the 
form  of  leaving  the  details  which  go  to  make  up  the 
opinion  established  by  the  speech  and  treating,  in  an 
enthusiastic  manner,  the  broad  principles  involved.  In 
his  famous  second  reply  to  Hayne,  Daniel  Webster  dealt 
with  specific  acts  and  rules  of  constitutional  law  in  the 
body  of  his  speech,  but  his  peroration  was  as  follows : 

I  profess,  sir,  in  my  career  hitherto,  to  have  kept  steadily  in 
view  the  prosperity  and  honor  of  the  whole  country,  and  tha 


94  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

preservation  of  our  Federal  Union.  It  is  to  that  Union  we  owe 
our  safety  at  lionn',  and  our  consideration  anil  dignity  abroad. 
It  is  to  that  Union  that  we  are  chiefly  indebted  for  whatever 
makes  us  most  proud  of  our  country.  That  Union  we  reached 
only  by  the  discipline  of  our  virtues  in  the  severe  school  of 
adversity.  It  had  its  origin  in  the  necessities  of  disordered 
finance,  prostrate  commerce,  and  ruined  credit.  Under  its 
benign  influences,  these  great  interests  immediately  awoke  as 
from  the  dead,  and  sprang  forth  with  newness  of  life.  Every 
year  of  its  duration  has  teemed  with  fresh  proofs  of  its  utility 
and  blessings;  and  although  our  territory  has  stretched  out 
wider  and  wider,  and  our  population  spread  farther  and  far- 
ther, they  have  not  outrun  its  protection  or  its  benefits.  It  has 
been  to  us  a  copious  fountain  of  national,  social,  and  personal 
happiness. 

I  have  not  allowed  myself,  sir,  to  look  beyond  the  Union,  to 
see  what  might  lie  hidden  in  the  dark  recesses  behind.  I  have 
not  coolly  weighed  the  chances  of  preserving  liberty  when  the 
l)onds  that  unite  us  together  shall  be  broken  asunder.  I  have  not 
accustomed  myself  to  hang  over  the  precipice  of  disunion,  to  see 
whether,  with  my  short  sight,  I  can  fathom  the  depths  of  the  abyss 
below ;  nor  could  I  regard  him  as  a  safe  counselor  in  the  affairs 
of  this  government,  whose  thought  would  l)e  mainly  bent  on  con- 
sidering, not  how  the  Union  may  be  best  preserved,  but  how 
tolerable  might  be  the  condition  of  the  people  when  it  should 
l)e  broken  up  and  destroyed. 

While  the  Union  lasts,  we  have  high,  gratifying,  exciting 
prospects  spread  out  before  us,  for  us  and  our  children.  Beyond 
that  I  seek  not  to  penetrate  the  veil.  God  grant  that,  in  my 
(hiy,  at  least,  that  curtain  may  not  rise!  God  grant  that  on  my 
vision  never  may  be  opened  what  lies  behind !  When  my  eyes 
shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time  the  sun  in  heaven, 
may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and  dishonored  frag- 
ments of  a  once  glorious  Union,  on  states  dissevered,  discordant, 
belligerent;  on  a  land  rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  di-enched,  it  may 
be,  in  fraternal  blood  !  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance 
rather  bcliold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  llic  I'cpublic,  now  known 
and    honored    lliroiigliout    Ihc   cj'.i'th,    still    full    lii.uh    advanced, 


THE  CONCLUSION  95 

its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  in  their  original  luster,  not  a 
stripe  erased  nor  polluted,  nor  a  single  star  obscured,  bearing 
for  its  motto  no  such  miserable  interrogatory  as,  '"Wliat  is  all 
tills  worth r'  nor  those  other  words  of  delusion  and  folly,  "Lib- 
erty first  and  Union  afterwards";  but  everywhere,  spi-ead  all 
over  in  characters  of  living  light,  blazing  on  all  its  ample  folds, 
as  they  float  over  the  sea  and  over  the  land,  and  in  every  wind 
in  the  whole  heavens,  that  other  sentiment  dear  to  every  true 
American  heart — Liberty  and  LTnion,  now  and  forever,  one  and 
inseparable ! 

It  is  this  tendency  to  take  a  universal  point  of  vievv^  in 
the  peroration  which  has  led  many  speakers  to  use  not 
only  poetic  diction  and  imagerj^  but  even  actual  ex- 
tracts from  poetry  itself.  An  example  is  to  be  found 
in  the  peroration  of  Henry  W.  Grady's  "New  South," 
an  oration  often  quoted. 

Now  what  answer  has  New  England  to  this  message  ?  Will  she 
permit  the  prejudice  of  war  to  remain  in  the  hearts  of  the  con- 
querors when  it  has  died  in  the  hearts  of  the  conquered?  Will 
she  transmit  this  prejudice  to  the  next  generation,  that  in  their 
hearts,  which  never  felt  the  generous  ardor  of  conflict,  it  may 
perpetuate  itself  ?  Will  she  withhold,  save  in  strained  courtesy, 
the  hand  which  straight  from  his  soldier's  heart.  Grant  offered 
Lee  at  Appomattox  ?  Will  she  make  the  vision  of  a  restored  and 
happy  people,  which  gathered  about  the  couch  of  your  dying 
captain,  filling  his  heart  with  grace,  touching  his  lips  with  praise 
and  glorifying  his  path  to  the  grave ;  will  she  make  this  vision, 
on  which  the  last  sigh  of  his  expiring  soul  breathed  a  benedic- 
tion, a  cheat  and  a  delusion "?  If  she  does,  the  South,  never  abject 
in  asking  for  comradeship,  must  accept  with  dignity  its  refusal ; 
but  if  she  does  not — if  she  accepts  with  frankness  and  sincerity 
this  message  of  good  will  and  friendship — then  will  the  prophecy 
of  Webster,  delivered  in  this  very  Society  forty  years  ago,  amid 
tremendous  applause,  be  verified  in  its  final  and  fullest  sense, 
when  he  said:  "Standing  hand  in  hand,  and  clasping  hands,  we 
shall  remain  united  as  we  have  l)een  for  sixtv  vears,  citizens  of 


96  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

the  same  country,  members  of  the  same  government,  united  all, 
united  now,  and  united  forever."  There  have  been  difficulties, 
contentions  and  controversies,  but  I  tell  you  that  in  my  judgment, 

"Those  opposed  eyes, 
AVhich,  like  the  meteors  of  a  troubled  heaven, 
All  of  one  nature,  of  one  substance  bred. 
Did  lately  meet  in  th'  intestine  shock. 
Shall   now,   in   mutual,   Avell-beseemiiig   ranks 
March  all  one  Avav." 

J  • 

V  (c)  The  Peroration  as  an  Appeal 

When  some  action  is  sought,  its  necessity  is  driven 
home  in  the  appeal  of  the  peroration.  Of  course,  many- 
actions  might  spring  from  feelings  developed  in  the 
concluding  remarks  just  quoted  from  Schurz,  Webster, 
and  Grady.  But  their  application  was  very  general.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  very  definite  act  is  sometimes  sought 
and  deliberately  urged  in  the  peroration.  Note  this  con- 
clusion of  Senator  Root's  speech  looking  toward  the 
repeal  of  the  Canal  Toll  Bill. 

Mr.  President,  there  is  but  one  alternative  consistent  with 
self-respect.  We  must  arbitrate  the  interpretation  of  this  treaty 
or  we  must  retire  from  the  position  we  have  taken. 

0,  Senators^'  consider  for  a  moment  what  it  is  that  we 
are  doing.  We  all  love  our  country;  we  are  all  full  of  hope 
and  courage  for  its  future;  we  love  its  good  name;  we  desire 
for  it  that  power  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  which  will 
enable  it  to  accomplish  still  greater  things  for  civilization  than 
it  has  accomplished  in  the  noble  past.  Shall  we  make  ourselves 
in  the  minds  of  the  world  like  unto  the  man  who  is  known  to 
})e  false  to  his  agrt^ements,  false  to  his  pledged  word  ?  Shall 
we  have  it  understood  the  whole  world  over  that  "you  must 
look  out  for  the  United  States  or  she  will  get  the  advantage  of 
you";  that  we  are  clever  and  cunning  to  get  the  better  of  the 
other  party  to  an  agreement,  and  th;it  at  the  end — 


THE  CONCLUSION  97 

Mr.  Brandegee:    ''Slippery"  would  be  a  bettor  word. 

Mr.  Root:  Yes;  I  thank  the  Senator  for  tiie  suggestion — 
"Slippery."  Shall  we  in  our  generation  add  to  those  claims 
to  honor  and  respect  which  our  fathers-  have  established  for  our 
country,  good  cause  that  we  shall  be  considered  slippery  ? 

It  is  worth  while,  Mr.  President,  to  be  a  citizen  of  a  great 
country,  but  size  alone  is  not  enough  to  make  a  country  great, 
A  country  must  be  great  in  its  ideals ;  it  must  be  great-hearted ; 
it  must  be  noble;  it  must  despise  and  reject  all  smallness  and 
meanness;  it  must  be  faithful  to  its  word;  it  must  keep  the 
faith  of  treaties ;  it  must  be  faithful  to  its  mission  of  civilization 
in  order  that  it  shall  be  truly  great.  It  is  because  we  believe 
this  of  our  country,  that  we  are  proud,  aye,  that  the  alien,  with 
the  first  step  of  his  foot  on  our  soil,  is  proud  to  be  a  part  of 
the  great  democracy. 

Let  us  put  aside  the  idea  of  small,  petty  advantage ;  let  us 
treat  this  situation  and  these  obligations  in  our  relation  to  the 
canal  in  that  large  way  which  befits  a  great  nation. 

Mr.  President,  how  sad  it  would  be  if  we  were  to  dim  the 
splendor  of  the  great  achievement  of  constructing  the  canal,  by 
drawing  across  it  the  mark  of  petty  selfishness ;  if  we  were  to 
diminish  and  reduce  for  generations  to  come,  the  power  and 
influence  of  this  free  Republic  for  the  uplifting  and  advance 
and  the  progress  of  mankind,  by  destroying  the  respect  of  man- 
kind for  us !  How  sad  it  would  be  if  you  and  I,  Senators,  were 
to  make  ourselves  responsi])le  for  destroying  that  bright  and 
inspiring  ideal  which  has  enabled  free  Amer^»a  to  hnid  the 
world  in  progress  toward  liberty  and  justice ! 

Here  the  appeal  to  action  is  on  the  ground  that  such 
action  will  be  in  keeping  with  lofty  ideals.  Note  the  fol- 
lowing appeal  in  Cnrran's  speech  in  defence  of  Patrick 
Finney,  charged  with  liigli  treason.  It  was  made  after 
lie  had  analyzed  the  testimony  in  a  thorough  manner. 

The  character  of  the  prisoner  has  been  given.  Am  I  war- 
ranted in  saying  that  I  ani  now  defending  an  innocent  and  un- 
fortunate fellow-subject,  on  the  grounds  of  eternal  justice  and 
immutable  law  ?    On  that  eternal  law,  I  do  now  call  upon  you  to 


98  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

acquit  my  client.  I  call  upon  you  for  3'our  justice !  Great 
is  the  reward,  and  sweet  is  the  recollection  in  tlie  hour  of  trial, 
and  in  the  day  of  dissolution,  when  the  casualties  of  life  are 
pressing  close  upon  your  heart,  and  when,  in  the  agonies  of 
death,  you  look  back  to  the  justifiable  and  honorable  transac- 
tions of  your  life.  At  the  awful  foot  of  the  Eternal  Justice,^ 
I  do,  therefore,  invite  you  to  acquit  my  client ;  and  nuiy  God, 
of  his  infinite  mercy,  grant  you  that  great  compensation  which 
is  a  reward  more  lasting  than  the  perishable  crown  we  read 
of,  which  the  ancients  gave  to  him  who  saved  the  life  of  a 
fellow-citizen  in  battle. 

In  the  name  of  public  justice,  I  do  implore  you  to  interpose 
between  the  perjurer  and  his  intended  victim ;  and,  if  ever  you 
are  assailed  by  the  villainy  of  an  informer,  may  you  find  refuge 
in  the  recollection  of  that  example,  which,  when  jurors,  you 
set  to  those  that  might  be  called  on  to  pass  judgment  upon  your 
lives;  to  repel  at  the  human  tribunal  the  intended  effects  of 
hireling  perjury  and  premeditated  murder!  If  it  should  be 
the  fate  of  any  of  you  to  count  the  tedious  moments  of  captivity, 
in  sorrow  and  in  pain,  pining  in  the  damps  and  gloom  of  a 
dungeon,  recollect  there  is  another  more  awful  tribunal  than 
any  on  earth,  which  we  must  all  approach,  and  before  which  the 
best  of  us  will  have  occasion  to  look  back  to  what  little  good 
he  has  done  on  this  side  the  grave ;  I  do  pray,  that  Eternal 
Justice  may  record  the  deed  you  bave  done,  and  give  to  you 
the  full  benefit  of  your  claims  to  an  eternal  reward,  a  requital 
in  mercy  upon  your  souls! 

Of  course,  an  appeal  is  usually  charged  with  emotion. 
While  it  is  best  for  the  speaker  to  suppress  feeling  and 
maintain  an  intellectual  calm  during  his  statement  and 
proof,  he  is  justified  in  showing  his  feelings  after  a  good 
ground  for  them  has  been  established.  There  is  not 
only  the  natural  feeling  of  the  speaker  himself,  but  there 
is  a  conscious  attempt  on  liis  part  to  (^xcite  the  ejiiotinus 
of  tlu^  audience,  for  action  springs  fi-om  IVcliug.  Notice 
tluit  Currau's  ])eroratiou  shows  his  own  strong  feelings, 


THE  CONCLITSION  99 

works  on  the  sympathies  of  the  jury,  and  even  arouses 
fear  of  retribution  if  there  be  an  unjust  verdict. 

A  typical  appeal  is  the  one  used  by  Henry  Clay  in 
support  of  the  New  Army  Bill,  January  8,  1813,  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  The  war,  declared  in  June, 
1812,  had  been  a  failure  and  the  administration  had  al- 
most been  defeated  in  the  election  by  a  ''peace  candi- 
date. ' '  In  his  speech.  Clay  tried,  in  general,  to  stir  the 
nation  to  renewed  activity  and,  in  particular,  to  pass  the 
proposed  bill  calling-  for  the  organization  of  twenty  new 
regiments. 

*  *  *  ^jj  honorable  peace  is  attainable  only  by  an  effi- 
cient war.  ]\Iy  plan  would  be  to  call  out  the  ample  resources  of 
the  couutiy;  give  them  a  judicious  direction;  prosecute  the 
war  with  the  utmost  vigor ;  strike  wherever  we  can  reach  the 
enemy,  at  sea  or  on  land,  and  dictate  the  terms  of  peace  at 
Quebec  or  Halifax.  We  are  told  that  England  is  a  proud  and 
lofty  nation,  which,  disdaining  to  wait  for  danger,  meets  it 
ialf  way.  Haughty  as  she  is,  we  once  triumphed  over  her, 
and,  if  we  do  not  listen  to  the  counsels  of  timidity  and  despair, 
we  shall  again  prevail.  In  such  a  cause,  with  the  aid  of 
Providence,  we  must  come  out  crowned  with  success;  but  if 
we  fail,  let  us  fail  like  men,  lash  ourselves  to  our  gallant  tars, 
and  expire  together  in  one  common  struggle,  fighting  for  free 

TRADE  AND  SEAMEN 's  RIGHTS. 

Naturally,  there  are  as  many  different  perorations  as 
there  are  different  audiences,  purposes,  and  occasions 
for  address.  But  these  three  general  aims — to  sum- 
marize, tcuapply,  and  tp  appeal — are  very  typical  and 
indicate  the  nature  of  the  functions  of  the  conclusion. 

Preparation  of  the  Conclusion 

We  cannot  leave  this  topic  without  giving  a  practical 
hint   about   the   preparation  of  the   concluding  matter. 


100  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Have  it  well  prepared.  Know  just  how  you  expect  to 
strike.  Do  not  rise  to  begin  a  speech  without  knowing 
precisely  how  you  will  end  it.  Too  many  speakers 
ramble  on  and  on,  never  knowing  when  or  how  to  stop 
and  never  driving  home  whatever  of  good  they  may  have 
said  during  the  speech  proper. 

A  necessary  preliminary  step  is  to  determine  clearly 
just  what  great  divisions  of  thought  you  will  cover  in 
the  body  of  the  speech.  Until  you  become  very  expert 
and  fully  capable  of  changing  plans  in  the  midst  of  a 
talk,  it  is  well  to  have  your  points  fully  planned.    Your 

task  is  to  treat  Point  A ,  Point  B ,  and 

Point  C ;  these  and  no  more.    Do  not  attempt  to 

deviate  from  or  add  to  these  points,  but,  having  finished 
the  task  assigned,  conclude  briefly  and  sit  down.  It  is 
evident  that  even  if  the  conclusion  is  well  thought  out 
and  the  speech  proper  poorly  planned,  the  uncertainty 
and  rambling  will  take  place. 

If,  perchance,  you  do  find  yourself  wandering  and  at 
a  loss  for  further  ideas,  the  safe  thing  to  do  is  to  pause, 
and  then  summarise .  Even  though  you  may  not  be  able 
to  make  an  application  or  appeal,  the  summary  gives  the 
sense  of  completion  and  is  therefore  an  acceptable  con^ 
elusion.  Furthermore,  it  may  have  the  effect  of  enabling 
you  to  collect  yourself  to  make  a  peroration  of  the  other 
types.  Never  sit  down  when  in  the  midst  of  wandering 
or  fragmentary  remarks.  Never  say,  with  uncertainty, 
"Well,  I  guess  that  is  about  all  I  have  to  say,"  and  sit 
down.  Rather  make  a  crisp,  business-like  summary. 
That  at  least  gives  the  impi-ession  of  completeness  and 
mastery. 

A  student,  whether  or  not  he  becomes  a  master  of  the 
poetic,  tln-illiug  ])er()ratioii  and  tlie  appeal,  must  by  all 


I 


THE  CONCLUSION  101 

means  cultivate  facility  in  terse  and  accurate  summary. 
No  other  single  asset  is  so  valuable  to  the  speaker,  es- 
pecially to  the  speaker  who  has  to  reply  to  opponents  or 
has  to  address  popular  gatherings.  In  debate,  the  sum- 
mary of  what  the  antagonist  has  said  is  the  logical 
foundation  of  an  attack  upon  his  position.  No  one  can 
reply  well  unless  he  can  analyze  and  summarize  well. 
So,  also,  in  making  your  ow^n  independent  speeches,  sum- 
maries are  necessary,  not  only  at  the  end,  but  also  to 
recapitulate  throughout  the  body  of  the  address. 

Assignment  of  Work 


'i1i('  written  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  sliould  he 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  writtcMi  exer- 
cises in  voiir  notebook. 


First  Ddj). — You  have  read  through  the  lesson.  Study  it  care- 
fully and  test  your  mastery  of  its  contents  by  answering  the 
appended  questions  (page  103).  Eead  aloud  many  times 
and  with  the  best  effect  possible  all  the  conclusions  quoted. 
Throw  yourself  into  the  situation  and  read  the  matter  with 
enthusiasm. 
Second  Day. — Clip  out  an  editorial  from  a  current  newspaper 
or  magazine.  Analyze  it,  and  tlien  write  the  topics  it  treats, 
thus : 

A (giving  the  sense  in  a  single  sentence) . 

B.  .  . (using  a  similar  topic  .sentence). 

C 

Then  develop  it  orally,  adding  an  original  summary  of 

the  ivliole.    If  you  can  make  many  analyses  and  summaries, 

the  work  will  be  of  great  benefit  to  you. 

Third  Day. — Write   perorations   which   take   the   ])roader   and 

loftier  viewpoint,  assuming  that  the  speech  preceding  it  has 

proved. 

1.  Free  public  education  has  reduced  crime. 


102  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

2.  Free  public  education  has  improved  the  economic  effi- 

ciency of  the  masses. 

3.  Free    public    education    has    elevated    the    intellectual 

capacity  of  the  nation. 

4.  Free  public  education  has  cultivated  higher  forms  of 

appreciation  and  amusement. 
Make  a  similar  topical  outline  or  brief  of  any  other  sub- 
ject, and  write  out  in  full  the  kind  of  peroration  designed. 
You  should  always  develop  your  ideas  orally  several  times 
before  writing  them  out.     Oral  composition  should  always 
precede  the  written  composition,  especially  when  a  man  is 
training  to  become  a  speaker. 
Fourth  Day. — Make  a  topical  outline  for  the  following  speeches 
and  write  out  an  appeal  in  full.     Follow  directions  given 
above  for  the  third  day. 

1.  To  a  church  society,  a  speech  requesting  funds  to  establish 

free-milk  stations  for  babies  in  the  slums. 

2.  To  the  mine  owners  of  Colorado,  a  speech  asking  them 

to  arbitrate  their  differences  with  the  miners. 

3.  To  a  large  manufacturing  board  of  directors,  a  recom- 

mendation to  make  a  whirlwind,  advertising  campaign. 
■1.  To  the  superintendents  of  education,  a  speech  advocating 

more  vocational  or  trade  schools. 
5.  A  speech  in  the  behalf  of  any  cause  in  which  you  are 

interested. 

Work  out  other  exercises  on  several  similar  topics. 
Fifth    Day. — Take   a  long  newspaper  article   reporting   a  law 
case,  civil  or  criminal,  and  make  a  topical  analysis.     Then 
write  out  (a)   a  formal  summary,    (b)   a  crisp  summary  to 
re-enforce  it,    (c)   an  appeal  for  acquittal  or  conviction. 

It  might  be  well  for  the  student  to  memorize  one  or  two  of 
the  peroratioiis  given  in  this  lesson.  This  is  not  intended  to 
get  liim  in  the  habit  of  speaking  from  memory,  but  to  give  him 
permanent  possession  of  one  or  two  models  and  to  give  him 
the  spirit  of  tlie  peroration. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  qm-stions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knoAvU'djre  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  si)(/f/e.stivc  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  Corax  made  his  type  plan  to  meet  the  needs  of  citizens 
who  had  to  plead  land-claim  suits ;  that  is,  in  Sicily,  when  there 
was  a  dispute  over  the  title  of  a  piece  of  property,  each  citizen 
argued  his  own  cause.  Why  do  you  think  the  arrangement 
Corax  made  was  a  good  one  for  the  purpose  ? 

2.  Why  is  it  better  to  divide  the  speech  into  three  parts — 
introduction,  body,  and  conclusion — than  to  enumerate  five  or 
eight  separate  parts? 

3.  Did  you  ever  hear  a  speaker  who  made  a  fairly  good 
speech  but  did  not  succeed  in  driving  it  home?  What  man 
do  you  know  who  does  drive  home  his  ideas  most  thoroughly? 

4.  Why  should  the  conclusion  be  in  the  mind  from  the  start? 
Why  prepare  the  introduction  last  ? 

5.  Did  you  ever  hear  a  long  speech  and  find  it  impossible  to 
remember  the  message  of  the  speaker  ?  Would  a  summary  have 
helped  any?     Why? 

6.  Why  do  you  think  a  formal  summary  is  more  necessary 
in  a  legal  plea  than  in  a  eulogy?  When  is  the  service  of  a 
formal  summary  indispensable  ?    When  may  it  be  omitted  ? 

7.  What  advantage  has  the  crisp  summary  over  the  formal 
summary?     What  disadvantage? 

8.  Were  you  ever  repelled  by  a  speaker  who  was  highly 
emotional  at  the  very  beginning?  Were  you  ever  "carried 
away "  by  an  emotional  burst  at  the  end  ?  Why  do  you  tolerate 
at  the  end  what  might  be  offensive  at  the  beginning? 

0.  Why  is  it  better  to  tell  what  you  want  the  audience  to  do 
in  an  appeal  at  the  end  than  to  tell  it  in  a  statement  in  the 
beginning? 

103 


104  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

10.  What  is  a  good  note  of  appeal  to  strike  with  most  juries? 
Why  do  lawyers  defending  murder  cases  often  demand  a 
death  sentence  or  acquittal,  but  not  a  compromise  sentence 
for  a  period  of  years? 

11.  What  is  a  good  note  of  appeal  to  be  used  with  gatherings 
of  business  men? 

12.  Do  you  think  the  poetical  quotation  at  the  end  of  Grady's 
"New  South"  strengthens  or  weakens  the  effect? 

13.  Were  you  ever  stirred  by  a  speaker  but  were  h?ft  with 
the  feeling  that  while  you  would  like  to  do  something,  you  did 
not  know  just  what  to  do?  Why  should  most  appeals  be  very 
definite  ? 

14.  What  is  the  effect  on  the  speaker  himself  of  uncertainty 
concerning  the  ending  of  a  speech  ?  What  effect  does  rambling 
have  on  an  audience  ? 

15.  Why  is  the  summary  an  efficient  means  of  stopping  ram- 
bling ? 


LESSON  7 
physical  aspects  of  delivery 

1.     Introduction 

Thus  far  we  have  spoken  about  the  mental  side  of 
speech-making:  The  clear  thinking  out  of  ideas,  their 
arrangement  in  the  most  effective  order,  their  proper 
introduction,  their  application  and  appeal — all  these  are 
matters  of  mental  exercise.  But  now  we  must  turn  for 
a  while  to  the  physical  side  of  the  delivery  of  a  speech. 
A  cornetist  might  have  the  most  wonderful  melodies  in 
his  mind,  but  if  he  had  no  instrument  and  if  his  breath 
were  insufficient  to  make  it  produce  sound,  other  people 
would  never  get  the  benefit  of  his  musical  genius.  The 
body  with  its  lungs,  vocal  cords,  and  tongiie  is  the  in- 
strument of  the  public  speaker.  Without  a  good  control 
of  the  body,  there  can  be  no  adequate  expression  of 
ideas  by  means  of  voice  and  gesture.  Therefore,  we 
shall  consider  the  most  important  of  those  physical 
things  which  influence  the  effectiveness  of  a  speaker. 

We  do  not  intend  to  give  minute  directions  about  the 
way  the  finger  should  be  pointed  or  the  eyebrow  raised. 
We  are  not  concerned  with  the  conscious  control  of  de- 
tails of  gesture  or  grimace.  But  we  do  face  this  situa- 
tion: Some  men  get  out  of  breath  when  they  speak; 
some  become  hoarse  if  they  talk  continuously  for  five  or 
105 


106  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ten  minutes;  some  sjjeak  so  poorly  that  they  cannot  be 
heard  even  in  a  small  hall;  some  have  their  voices 
"break."  All  these  are  practical  obstacles  to  efficiency. 
We  must  show  the  student  how  to  overcome  or  avoid 
them. 

But  besides  these  very  obvious  weaknesses  of  most 
untrained  speakers,  there  are  the  less  generally  recog- 
nized deficiencies  of  unpleasant  tone,  jerky  delivery  due 
to  poor  breathing,  and  individual  mannerisms.  With 
these,  also,  we  must  deal. 

Fortunately,  if  the  student  will  acquire  a  few  simple 
habits  of  posture  and  breathing,  most  of  tlio  matters  of 
voice  range,  quality,  and  ease  will  take  care  of  them- 
selves. These  habits  are  to  speaking  what  normal  liv- 
ing is  to  health.  If  one  lives  properly,  he  need  never 
attend  to  his  health,  for  it  will  take  care  of  itself,  and 
he  need  never  consult  a  physician.  So,  also,  the  speaker 
who  habitually  stands  well  and  breathes  properly  will 
unconsciously  produce  pleasant,  strong  tones  and  make 
graceful  gestures.  Furthermore,  easy  posture  and  cor- 
rect, deep  breathing  have  a  wonderful  influence  upon  the 
mental  calm  and  effectiveness  of  the  speaker.  We  shall, 
then,  devote  this  lesson  to  fundamental,  physical  consid- 
erations which  have  a  far-reaching  effect  upon  the  mind 
and  voice  of  the  speaker. 

2.     Posture 

By  posture,  we  mean  the  way  the  speaker  stands — 
how  he  rests  upon  his  feet,  how  he  holds  his  trunk,  or 
torso,  and  the  attitude  of  his  head  and  arms.  There  is  a 
good  posture  which  makes  for  efficiencv  and  there  are 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  107 

bad  ones  which  interfore  with  delivery.  The  ideal  pos- 
ture shouhl  do  two  things:  (1)  It  shoukl  be  the  most 
comfortable  position  of  rest  from  which  the  speaker  may 
make  the  most  direct,  easy,  and  graceful  movements 
when  there  is  a  natural  impulse  for  him  to  do  so;  and 
(2)  it  should  be  the  best  position  to  foster  the  kind  of 
breathing-  which  is  most  desirable  for  the  public  speaker. 

(a)   The  Position  of  the  Feet 

The  first  and  easiest  thing  to  explain  about  posture 
is  the  disposition  of  the  feet.  They  should  be  placed 
so  as  to  support  the  body  in  easy  balance,  permitting  the 
simplest  change  of  position  when  the  speaker  moves 
about  on  the  platform  or  shifts  his  weight  in  gesture. 
There  are,  of  course,  many  different  attitudes  which  a 
speaker  may  assume  during  an  address.  We  shall  de- 
scribe now  the  normal  posture,  or  standard  position, 
from  which  the  speaker  departs  in  assuming  the  others 
and  with  wdiich  others  are  compared. 

Look  at  the  outline  picture  of  Demosthenes  and  note 
the  position  of  the  feet.  Y^ou  will  see  that  the  right  foot 
is  somewhat  in  advance  of  the  left,  thus  bringing  the 
right  hand,  with  which  most  men  usually  make  the  most 
gestures,  nearest  the  audience.  (The  Greek  orator  has 
that  arm  free  of  drapery  so  that  its  movements  will  be 
unhampered.)  Neither  foot  points  directly  at  the  au- 
dience, though  the  right  foot  comes  nearer  to  doing  so 
than  the  left.  If  a  line  were  drawn  through  the  right 
foot  and  back  to  the  left  foot,  it  would  pass  through  the 
left  heel.  The  right  foot  is  advanced  so  that  the  heel  is 
about  as  far  forward  as  the  toe  of  the  left.    The  accom- 


Figiiro  1 

DEMOSTHENES 

Statup  in  tho  Vatican  Museum 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY 


109 


panying  diagram  (Figure  2)  shows  the  relative  posi- 
tions of  the  two  feet  and  indicates  that  they  are  turned 
at  about  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 


(b)    The  Weight  of  the  Body 


It  is  from  this  normal  position,  as  a  point  of  de- 
parture, that  the  speaker  changes  during  the  progress 
of  his  speech.  The  feet  having  been  so  placed,  the  next 
problem  is  the  determination  of  the  disposition  of  the 
weight  of  the  body.  Look  at  the  picture  of  Demos- 
thenes. It  shows  a  man  in  the  normal  position  at  rest. 
You  can  imagine  him  just  facing  the  Athenian  audience 
waiting  quietly  until  their  applause  of  greeting  sub- 
sides. His  weight  is  almost  entirely  on  the  left  foot  and 
the  right  knee  is  somewhat  bent.  But  when  he  straight- 
ens up  to  speak,  the  bend  at  the  right  knee  will  disap- 
pear ;  the  shoulders  will  be  thrown  back  and  the  weight, 
though  still  more  on  the  left  foot  than  on  the  right,  will 
be  almost  equally  borne  by  both.  This  is  the  nornud 
position  in  action. 

With  the  feet  in  the  normal  position,  the  weight  may 
be  shifted  so  as  to  be  almost  wholly  on  the  left  foot,  now 
equally  on  both,  and  again  all  on  the  right.  While  wait- 
ing, or  in  a  retiring  attitude,  there  is  a  normal  tendency 
^  rest  easily  on  the  back,  or  left,  foot.    In  straightfor- 


110  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ward,  natural  discourse,  the  weight  is  borne  equally  by 
both  feet.  With  increased  energy,  the  weight  shifts 
more  forward,  and  in  very  aggressive  speech  the  weight 
is  almost  entirely  on  the  forw^ard  foot.  In  great  anima- 
tion the  speaker  may  even  lean  forward  with  the  heel  of 
the  left  foot  well  oif  the  floor.  Yet  the  normal  position 
for  normal  delivery  calls  for  both  feet  placed  firmly  on 
the  floor ;  their  positions  in  relation  to  eacli  other  should 
be  as  indicated  in  the  diagram  and  the  w^eight  should  be 
carried  almost  equally.  The  legs  are  straight  and  the 
body  held  upright. 

(c)    Practice 

Assume  the  normal  position  at  rest  and  as  you  say 
these  words,  straighten  up  in  action  as  described  in  the 
paragraph  above :  ' '  Mr.  President,  I  am  pleased  to  ad- 
dress the  House  on  the  question  of  the  freedom  of  the 
F'ilipinos."  At  this  point,  the  weight  is  carried  equally 
l)y  both  feet.  As  you  continue,  shift  a  little  more  weight 
to  the  right  foot,  saying,  ''Where  human  liberty  is  to 
be  gained,  there  will  I  always  take  my  stand." 

Note  that  at  rest,  the  body  bends  in  somewhat  at  the 
waist  and  the  left  hip  sinks.  In  action,  the  body  is  erect. 
In  earnest  address,  it  is  more  vigorously  erect.  Con- 
tinue your  exercise  by  improvising  a  number  of  quiet 
openings  which  gradually  change  to  more  spirited  ex- 
pression. In  each  case,  start  from  (1)  the  somewhat 
subdued  position  of  rest  to  (2)  the  easy  balance  of  nor- 
mal action,  and  {?>)  the  more  tense  posture  of  animated 
delivery. 

The  student  should  continue  his  exercises  witli  the 
view  to  securing  easy  balance  in  all  positions  and  du- 
ring the  shifting  of  weiglit.     Tlirongliout  tlie  actual  de- 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  111 

livery  of  a  real  speech,  one  does  not  attend  to  these 
things;  he  either  does  them  well  or  poorly,  but  he  does 
not  consciously  direct  his  body.  The  exercises  we  sug- 
gest are  to  train  the  body  so  that  it  will  take  care  of 
itself  when  the  mind  is  engaged  in  the  business  of  send- 
ing thoughts  to  the  audience.  Indeed,  all  mechanical 
exercises  in  connection  with  speech  are  to  be  forgotten 
during  the  delivery  of  the  speech  itself.  It  is  hoped, 
however,  that  their  effects  will  be  evident  in  excellent 
performance. 

(d)   The  Posture  of  the  Trunk 

We  shall  now  consider  the  way  the  body  from  the 
waist  up  should  be  held.  Again  we  take  a  normal,  or 
standard,  posture  as  the  point  of  departure.  We  want  a 
posture  which  will  be  manly  and  pleasing  and  which  will 
facilitate  good  breathing.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
clerks  who  sit  hunched  over  a  desk  do  not  fill  their  lungs 
properly  with  air.  Their  posture  prevents  them  from 
doing  so.  In  order  to  get  a  full  breath,  the  shoulders 
must  be  thrown  back  and  the  chest  held  high.  Then,  at 
the  same  time,  there  must  be  freedom  at  the  waist  so  that 
a  deep  inlialation  may  be  possible. 

It  will  be  clear,  before  we  end  this  lesson,  that  if  the 
student  can  get  the  habit  of  standing  with  the  shoulders 
held  properly,  the  back  hollow,  stomach  in,  and  chest  up, 
he  wHl  be  able  to  breathe  in  the  proper,  public-speaking 
style.  No  doubt  you  have  seen  in  drug  stores  the  braces 
which  are  advertised  to  '^make  you  breathe  cor- 
rectly." This  indeed  they  do,  for  they  draw  the  shoul- 
ders back  and  force  the  body  into  the  position  just 
described.  The  exercises  we  shall  give  will  also  force 
you  to  breathe  properly,  because  they  will  strengthen 


112  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEi^ING 

the  muscles  which  must  work  to  enable  you  to  hold  the 
correct  posture.  It  is  better  to  strengthen  the  muscles 
than  to  wear  a  band  or  brace. 

(e)    Exercise 


(a)  Stand  in  a  military  position  and  bring  the  two 
fists  together  on  the  chest  at  the  level  of  the  shoulders. 
(Fig.  3.)  The  thumbs  and  fingers  face  the  floor.  The 
backs  of  the  hands,  the  elbows,  and  the  shoulders  are  all 
in  a  straight  line. 


Figure  3 

(b)  Keeping  the  elbows  steadily  in  position  and  using 
them  for  a  center,  describe  a  quarter-circle  with  the 
fists.  The  two  thumbs  face  each  other  during  the  move- 
ment. Do  it  with  strong  tension  and  resistance  all  the 
time,  so  that  the  muscles  feel  the  strain. 

(c)  When  the  fists  have  reached  the  top  of  the  curve, 
slowly  twist  them  so  that  the  thumbs  turn  away  from  the 
face  and  the  backs  of  the  two  hands  are  opposite  each 
other.  Then  continue  the  movement  of  the  fists,  describ- 
ing   the    rest    of    a    full    half-circle.      The  two    arms 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OP  DELIVERY 


113 


are  now  fully  extended  at  shoulder  level  with  the  thumbs 
down  toward  the  floor.  The  strain  is  continued  through- 
out. 

(d)  Now  gradually  bring  the  two  fists  forward,  at 
shoulder  level,  until  they  meet  once  more  at  the  original 
position  on  the  chest  (Fig.  4).    All  this  time  bear  down 


I 


Figure  4  '•— • 

strongly  under  the  shoulder  so  that  the  greatest  tension 
is  felt  under  the  shoulder  blades. 

Maintain  this  position  for  a  moment  and  notice  that 
the  chest  has  been  raised  by  the  strong  action  of  the 
muscles  of  the  back  and  shoulder.  This  is  the  West 
Point  ' '  high-chest. ' ' 

(e)  Now  drop  the  hands  lightly  to  the  sides,  but  main- 
tain the  chest  posture  by  an  effort  under  the  shoulders 
and  in  the  back. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  back  is  arched  inwardly,  or 
is  hollow^,  and  the  chest  is  high.  This  is  ideal  for  a  big 
lung  capacity.  Consequently,  it  is  excellent  for  both 
health  and  public  speaking. 

Repeat  this  exercise  in  your  I'oom;  do  it  often  just 
before  starting  for  a  w^alk.     Get  the  habit  of  holding 


1]4  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

the  chest  up.  While  walking,  remember  to  maintain  the 
West  Point  chest.  Even  while  sitting  at  the  desk,  main- 
tain it.  When  you  bend  forward,  let  it  be  from  the  hip, 
not  from  the  ivaist.  The  line  from  the  base  of  the  back- 
bone to  the  neck  should  be  kept  a  hollow  curve ;  never  let 
the  shoulders  droop  forward,  the  back  bow  out,  and  the 
chest  cave  in.  If  these  directions  are  followed,  you  will 
cultivate  the  ideal  posture  of  the  upper  body. 


(f)   Flexibility 

While  it  is  true  that  the  chest  must  be  held  up,  still 
the  student  must  not  allow  this  to  influence  him  to  be- 
come generally  stiff  and  restrained  in  his  movements. 
Do  not  draw  the  chin  in  stiffly  or  keep  the  arms  in  a 
muscular  cramp.  After  taking  the  exercise  just  de- 
scribed and  while  still  holding  the  chest  well  up,  allow 
the  head  to  roll  limply  from  side  to  side.  Then  allow  it 
to  circle  around,  with  the  jaw  relaxed  and  the  chin 
dropped.  Do  this  until  you  get  the  ability  to  hold  the 
chest  well  and  at  the  same  time  move  the  head  and  jaw 
with  the  utmost  freedom.  There  must  be  no  stiffness 
in  the  speaker's  jaw  or  throat. 

Now  do  the  same  with  the  hands  and  arms.  Keeping 
the  chest  up,  loosely  swing  the  arms  back  and  forth. 
Then  fling  the  hand  out  as  in  a  greeting,  saying,  ''I 
welcome  you  to  our  country  place."  Then  wave  the 
hand  to  the  side  as  though  saying,  "All  these  lands  are 
open  to  you."  In  short,  see  to  it  that  while  the  chest 
is  kept  high  by  the  muscles  under  the  shoulders  and  in 
the  ])ack,  the  rest  of  the  body  is  flexible  and  unrestrained. 
After   a   while,   the   pi'oper   muscles   wliich   control   the 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  115 

chest  posture  will  do  their  work  without  direction  from 
the  mind.  That  is  the  goal  toward  which  constant  ex- 
ercise and  practice  will  lead. 

3.    Breathing 

It  would  not  have  been  safe  to  give  the  student  breath- 
ing exercises  before  he  had  mastered  the  correct  posture 
of  the  chest,  for  breathing  under  incorrect  posture  con- 
ditions only  fixes  bad  habits.  It  is  unfortunate  to  give, 
as  many  works  on  elocution  do,  numerous  exercises  on 
the  intake  and  outlet  of  air  without  first  teaching  pos- 
ture. This  we  avoid ;  we  urge  the  student  to  get  posture 
as  a  necessary  preliminary  to  correct  breath  control. 

Breathing  to  sustain  life  differs  somewhat  from 
breathing  to  supply  the  motor  power  for  speaking.  In 
the  former  case  we  are  mostly  interested  in  a  deep 
inhalation  to  fill  the  lungs  with  oxygen  and  a  quick 
expiration  to  get  rid  of  the  devitalized  air.  But,  in 
speaking,  we  wish  to  regulate  the  expiration  so  as  to 
use  the  air  slowly  as  it  passes  out,  in  much  the  same  way 
as  steam  is  used  to  make  an  engine  w^ork.  Consequently, 
we  shall  study  with  care,  not  only  the  best  way  to  get 
the  greatest  amount  of  air  into  the  lungs,  but  also  the 
way  to  regulate  its  emission  so  that  it  will  most  effi- 
ciently work  to  produce  the  sounds  in  speech. 

(a)    Inhalation 

The  lungs  rest  in  the  chest  and  are  surrounded  by  the 
ribs  in  all  directions  save  the  bottom.  Here  they  rest 
upon  an  extensive  surface  of  muscle  and  tendon  called 
the  diaphragm.     This  flexible  wall  of  muscle  is  like  a 


116 


EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


bowl  turned  upside  down;  and  it  separates  the  chest  from 
the  abdomen  (Fig.  5).     The  size  of  the  chest  can  be  in- 


,    ^ 


Figure  5 


I — First  rib. 

II — Second  rib,  etc. 

A — ^Voice  box  or  larynx. 

B — Wind  pipe  or  tracliea. 


C — Collar-bone. 
I) — Lungs. 
R — Breast-bone. 
V — Diaphragm. 


creased  in  two  ways:  (1)  By  raising  the  ribs  so  as  to  in- 
crease the  upper  girth,  and  (2)  by  flattening  the  dia- 
pliragm  so  as  to  increase  the  depth  (Fig.  6). 

The  exercises  for  posture  suggested  in  the  first  part 
of  this  lesson  are  designed  to  raise  the  ribs  and  keep 
them  raised.    Tliis  gives  a  steady  magnitude  in  the  girth 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY 


117 


of  the  upper  chest.  Figure  6  indicates  how  the  raising 
of  the  ribs  accomplishes  the  desired  object.  It  is  im- 
portant to  note  the  following  points : 

1.  The  bony  framework  of  the  chest  should  be  stead- 
ily held  up  by  the  muscles  behind  the  shoulders.  It 
should  not  be  raised  by  the  inflation  of  the  lungs.  It 
should  hardly  move  at  all  during  speaking. 

2.  The   great  movement   during  speaking   should   be 


(a) 


(b) 


Figure  6 


(a)  Ribs  and  Spinal  Column,  sliowing  1st  and  Ttli  ribs  in  position  of  relaxa- 
tion and  in  "high  chest"  position  when  drawn  up  by  muscles  of  the  bacli  and 
shoulder. 

(b)  Scheme  showing  the  chest  walls  and  diaphragm  with  air  expelled  and 
(dash  outline)  with  a  full  breath;  diaphragmatic,  high  chest  combination. 


just  below  the  point  at  which  the  ribs  meet  the  breast- 
bone and  on  a  level  with  the  little,  floating  ribs. 
The  7novement  is  caused  hy  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
diaphragm. 

This  second  observation  brings  us  to  a  discussion  of 
the  diaphragm.     To  appreciate  its  action  for  the  first 


118  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

time,  it  is  best  to  lie  fiat  upon  your  bacli  wlien  you  are 
undressed  and  ready  to  retire  for  tlie  night.  While  thus 
reclining,  the  ribs,  not  being  weighted  down  by  the  arms 
and  their  own  bulk,  easily  assume  the  correct  position 
of  maximum  girth.  While  lying  on  your  back,  place  the 
hand  just  below  the  breast-bone  and  take  a  good,  deep 
breath.  Notice  how  that  part  of  the  body  rises  and  falls 
with  the  breathing.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
diaphragm  flattens  so  that  its  edges  push  out  the  lower 
ribs  on  the  sides  and  the  upper  abdomen  in  the  front. 
Feel  the  lower  ribs  on  both  sides  wliile  taking  the 
breath. 

The  great  fault  with  most  men  is  that  they  take  too 
shallow  a  breath  and  do  not  work  the  diaphragm  enough. 
Furthermore,  they  raise  the  shoulders  and  upper  chest 
when  taking  a  breath  and  let  the  chest  fall  flat  when  they 
exhale. 

Now  stand  upright  with  the  hand  on  the  center  of  the 
upper  abdomen;  concentrate  the  attention  on  that  part 
of  the  body;  hold  the  chest  high  and  take  a  deep  breath. 
Do  this  many  times  until  you  are  able  (1)  to  maintain  a 
motionless  high  chest,  and  (2)  to  breathe  by  the  action 
of  the  diaphragm.  During  actual  speaking,  one  does  not 
attend  to  his  movements.  Furthermore,  there  will  be 
some  slight  activity  of  the  upper  chest.  But  try  to  keep 
a  steady  upper  chest  during  exercises  consciously  done. 

(b)    Exhalation 

You  will  have  noticed  that  the  intake  of  breath  with 
central  breathing  as  described  above  gives  the  sensation 
of  increased  effort  in  the  region  of  the  diaphragm.  The 
deeper  the  breath,  the  stronger  the  sensation  of  tighten- 


PHYSICxVL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  119 

ing.  During  exhalation,  there  should  be  a  gradual  re- 
laxation of  that  effort.  To  appreciate  what  is  wanted, 
take  a  slow,  deep  breath,  feeling  the  effect  grow  stronger 
and  stronger.  Then  retain  the  air  in  the  lungs  by  main- 
taining the  effort  at  the  diaphragm.  {Do  not  hold  in 
the  air  by  constricting  the  throat.  If  there  is  any  sensa- 
tion in  the  throat,  your  method  is  wrong.)  Now  sound 
S-5-5-.S-5  continuously  and  slowly  by  having  the  air  pour 
out  smoothly.  It  is  released  from  the  lungs  by  a  slow 
and  steady  release  of  the  muscular  tension  of  the  dia- 
phragm. There  must  he  central  control  of  emission  and 
not  throat  control.  It  will  be  noticed  at  first  that  the  air 
and  the  sound  of  s  will  come  out  in  spurts.  This  is  be- 
cause your  control  is  not  good.  But  constant  practice 
will  give  you  such  control  that  you  can  let  the  air  out 
at  a  sloiv  and  steady  rate.  It  will  also  probably  be 
noticed  that  after  a  certain  amount  of  the  air  is  out 
there  is  a  tendency  for  all  the  rest  to  burst  forth  with  a 
rush.  That  is  because  the  control  becomes  more  difficult 
as  the  diaphragm  relaxes. 

,  (c)  Breathing  Exercises  to  Increase  Capacity 

1.  Stand  in  the  normal  posture,  but  with  the  palms  of 
the  two  hands  resting  lightly  on  the  upper  chest.  Breathe 
through  the  nostrils.  Slowly  inliale  with  the  dia- 
phragmatic effort  and  gently  pat  the  chest  with  the 
hands.  This  tends  to  force  the  air  into  partially  unex- 
panded  air  cells. 

2.  Repeat  exercise  1  and  have  someone  else  gently 
tap  you  all  over  the  back.  Do  not  hit  hard,  but  rapidly 
and  gently.    • 


120  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

3.  Stand  in  tlie  military  position  with  the  chest  well 
up  and  the  hands  at  the  sides.  Then  as  you  slowly  in- 
hale, raise  the  arms,  fluttering  the  hands  until  the  two 
backs  meet  over  the  head.  As  you  slowly  exhale,  let  the 
hands  return  to  the  original  position  at  the  side. 

These  three  exercises  are  excellent  for  one  who  has 
been  standing  in  a  poor  posture  and  breathing  incor- 
rectly with  the  result  that  a  great  manj^  of  the  little  air 
cells  of  the  lungs  have  remained  undeveloped.  The  fol- 
lowing exercises  should  be  used  after  those  given  above 
have  been  used  for  a  few  weeks. 

4.  Standing  with  the  hands  on  the  waist  so  that  the 
fingers  lie  along  the  abdomen  and  the  thumbs  are  in  the 
hollow  of  the  back,  take  a  comfortable,  full  breath,  ac- 
cording to  the  method  just  described.  Then,  by  an  effort 
of  the  diaphragm,  draw  in  a  little  more  and  a  little  more 
air  until  the  absolute  limit  is  reached.  Expel  quickly 
through  the  nose.  With  this  effort  there  must  be  no 
"sipping"  or  "packing"  in  the  throat.  There  must 
indeed  be  no  effort  whatsoever  at  the  throat;  all  the 
strain  should  be  on  the  diaphragm  as  it  is  forced  flatter 
and  flatter  and  held  so. 


(d)   Breathing  Exercises  for  Control  of  Emission 

5.  Take  a  full,  though  comfortable,  breath  as  de- 
scribed. Then  slowly  and  steadily  count  aloud,  one,  two, 
three,  four,  etc.,  so  that  all  the  sounds  are  firm  and  of 
equal  force  and  clearness.  They  come  at  regular  inter- 
vals. As  you  proceed,  there  is  a  gradual  relaxation  of 
the  diaphragm,  the  steadiness  and  evenness  of  which 
determine  the  character  of  the  sounds.    Do  not  attempt 


I 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  121 

long-distance    records    at    first.      Stop    as    soon   as    the 
sounds  lack  firmness  and  precision. 

6.  Kead  aloud  anything  you  may  select;  try  to 
take  as  few  breaths  as  possible,  while  maintaining  a 
strong  and  pleasing  tone.  Regulate  as  noted  in  Exer- 
cise 5. 

(e)    Comhinafion  Breathing  Exercise 

7.  Assume  the  standard  posture  of  the  trunk; 
breathe  through  the  nostrils;  (a)  inhale  slowly  with 
diaphragmatic  effort  as  you  silently  count  off  three  sec- 
onds; (b)  hold  the  breath  by  central  (and  not  throat) 
effort  for  three  seconds;  (c)  exhale  slowly  for  three  sec- 
onds; (d)  rest  for  three  seconds.  Repeat  this  twelve- 
second  cycle  for  about  ten  minutes.  If  difficulty  is  ex- 
perienced in  keeping  the  three-second  rest,  leave  it  out 
at  first.  Then  introduce  a  rest  of  one  second,  then  two, 
then  the  full  three  seconds.  The  idea  is  to  have  regular, 
i-hythmic  breathing.  While  taking  this  exercise,  move 
the  head  about  freely;  also  move  the  arms,  for  the  whole 
body  should  be  perfectly  flexible  and  at  ease,  and  in  no 
wise  hampered  by  the  breathing. 

An  excellent  application  of  this  exercise  may  be  made 
during  walking.  Make  each  portion  of  the  cycle  four 
])eats  instead  of  three,  for  each  step  is  likely  to  be 
quicker  than  a  second  interval.  While  walking,  with 
the  steps  as  the  measure,  do  the  cycle.  Keep  the  arms 
swinging  freely  and  let  the  head  move  as  when  looking 
about  to  observe  surroundings.  If  you  swing  the  Indian 
clubs  or  use  dumb-bells,  the  breathing  exercise  can  be 
performed  during  the  regular  and  rhythmic  moves  of 
your  gymnastics.    But  above  all,  use  your  walking  time 


122  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

to  improve  yonr  breathing;  this  is  the  best  way  to  get 
the  iiecessaiy,  constant  practice. 

(f)    Conditions  for  Breathing  Exercises 

You  may  make  as  many  combinations  of  the  exercises 
given  above  as  you  please;  you  may  also  add  different 
tricks  of  rapid  or  slow  intake,  explosive  expulsion,  sigh- 
ing, sobbing,  and  yawning.  But  observe  the  following 
conditions  when  taking  the  exercises: 

1.  Never  exercise  just  before  or  just  after  a  meal; 
disturbances  of  the  digestive  process  may  result. 

2.  Have  the  windows  open  or  be  out  of  doors.  You 
ought  to  use  only  clean,  fresh  air. 

3.  Do  not  raise  the  shoulders,  but  maintain  the 
steady,  high  chest. 

4.  Have  perfect  freedom  at  the  waist  and  at  the 
small  ribs ;  do  not  have  clothes  tight  in  this  region. 

5.  All  the  breathing  eiTort  should  be  at  the  diaphragm 
not  at  the  throat. 

4.     CoNCLUDixG  Remarks 

Because  these  exercises  are  to  be  practiced  carefully 
and  every  movement  is  to  be  regulated  by  the  mind,  it 
must  not  be  thought  that  the  speaker,  while  delivering 
his  address,  stands  and  breathes  by  rule.  On  the  con- 
trary, all  his  physical  acts  should  take  care  of  themselves 
while  he  centers  his  attention  upon  the  audience  and  his 
message. 

The  most  effective  state  a  speaker  can  be  in  is  one  of 
earnestness,  where  he  is  driving  straight  onward  toward 
his  object  without  giving  thought  to  the  physical  means 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  123 

he  is  using.  But,  nevertheless,  those  medianical  parts 
are  the  agencies  tlirough  which  he  readies  the  autlience, 
and  tliey  nmst  be  cultivated  so  that  during  the  act  of 
expression  they  will  worthily  represent  the  mind. 
Nature  has  beneficently  provided  that  good  habits  of 
breathing  and  posture,  once  secured  through  training, 
will  take  care  of  themselves  while  the  mind  is  engaged 
with  ideas.  Consequently,  your  effort  in  exercise  will 
not  be  lost  even  though,  during  speech,  you  forget  Jioiv 
you  breathe  or  stand. 

You  should  not  despise  good  form  and  depend  solely 
upon  ideas,  for  they  cannot  fully  display  themselves 
if  the  form  is  poor.  A  novice  will  do  well  to  see  carefully 
that  his  posture  is  good,  at  least  at  the  beginning  of  a 
speech.  After  he  is  once  started,  let  the  form  take  care 
of  itself.  This  it  will  do  if  the  exercises  have  left  their 
traces  in  habitual  movements. 

In  most  cases,  a  good  start  will  insure  continued  excel- 
lence. On  the  other  hand,  a  poor  start  is  likely  to  estab- 
lish an  undesirable  situation  very  difficult  to  overcome. 
If  you  begin  by  slouching  or  with  the  hands  in  the 
trousers  pockets,  you  will  find  it  difficult  to  change  to  a 
less  offensive  attitude.  Do  not  play  with  a  spoon,  a 
_  glass,  or  a  salt  cellar  on  the  table,  or  a  book,  or  even  a 
watch  charm  or  a  button  on  the  coat.  Assume  the 
normal  posture  with  the  hands  hanging  easily  and  nat- 
urally at  the  sides.  As  the  speech  proceeds,  there  will 
be  changes,  but  a  good  beginning  helps  toward  making 
the  later  movements  simple,  unembarrassed,  direct,  and 
effective. 

Often  one  is  a  little  nervous  just  before  beginning  to 
speak.  It  will  usually  be  noticed  that  one  of  the  symp- 
toms of  this  nervousness  is  high,  shallow  breathing  and 


124  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

consequent  unpleasantness  in  the  throat.  The  remedy  is 
a  few  slow,  deep,  steady  breaths  of  the  diaphragmatic 
type.  Indeed,  a  sj^eaker  may  always  do  well  to  take  a 
few  steady,  deep  breaths,  not  only  as  a  means  of  having 
sufficient  air  to  begin  with,  but  also  as  a  calmer. 

Even  during  the  address,  the  speaker  may  notice  that 
he  is  becoming  nervous,  that  his  breath  is  shallow^  and 
his  rate  too  fast.  The  corrective  is  to  pause,  breathe 
low,  and  then  proceed  more  deliberately,  even  attend- 
ing consciously  for  a  time  to  the  deep,  diaphragmatic 
breathing.  Certainly  this  course  nuist  be  pursued  if 
the  speaker  feels  his  voice  weakening  or  about  to 
*' crack." 

This  matter  of  breathing  and  posture  is  most  impor- 
tant. It  is  at  the  very  foundation  of  physical  efficiency. 
Actors  have  ruined  plays  by  bad  breathing;  ministers 
have  driven  people  from  their  churches  by  bad  breath- 
ing; political  campaigns  have  been  lost  by  the  bad 
breathing  of  candidates;  and  thousands  of  voices  have 
been  ruined  by  the  same  pernicious  evil.  We  urge  most 
emphatically,  therefore,  that  the  student  make  his  body 
fit  to  carry  out  the  orders  of  his  mind.  Only  through  a 
harmonious  development  of  the  mind  and  body  can  the 
highest  efficiency  be  attained. 

Assignment  of  AVork 


Tlip    written 

■xcrciscs    in 

this 

(Mitirt 

lesson    shoi 

Id   be 

carefully   worke 

1    out.       KtH' 

)   nip 

cs  of 

tlie   written 

exer- 

ciscs  in   voiii'  n( 

tfhook. 

First  Da!j. — You  have  n-ad  tlu>  lesson.  Now  read  it  more 
slowly,  performing  all  the  exei-cises  once,  according  to  direc- 
tion. Tlien  read  it  a  tliird  lime  so  as  to  get  a  coherent  grasp 
of  the   \vlio](>  h'S.son. 


I 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  125 

Second  Day. — Exercise  with  the  position  of  the  feet.  Although 
this  day  is  especially  devoted  to  the  position  of  the  feet,  keep 
the  correct  trunk  posture.  Take  the  speech  on  page  2(3, 
Lesson  2.  Assume  the  normal  posture  of  the  feet  and  read 
with  animation.  Note  tliat  the  weight  tends  to  swing  for- 
ward on  the  words,  "The  supreme  need  of  the  hour  is 
*  *  *  ."  Read  this  whole  speech,  holding  the  book  in 
the  left  hand  and  gesticulating  as  freely  as  you  please  with 
the  right.  Do  this  before  the  mirror.  Notice  the  constant 
shifting  of  the  weight.  Do  the  same  thing  with  the  Garfield 
speech,  on  pages  33-37,  Lesson  3. 

Third  Day. — Do  the  exercise  for  trunk  posture  (page  112). 
Add  the  following:  Stand  in  an  open  doorwaj^  with  the 
hands  shoulder-high  against  the  two  sides,  keep  both  feet 
together;  now  fall  forward,  bending  at  the  ankles,  until  the 
shoulders  are  further  forward  than  the  hands ;  then,  by  push- 
ing with  the  hands,  come  back  to  the  original  position.  Take 
any  other  exercises  designed  to  draw  the  shoulders  back  and 
consequently  to  raise  the  chest. 

Standing  in  the  normal,  or  standard,  position,  and  with  the 
back  well  arched,  develop  orally  an  outline  or  two,  such  as 
those  suggested  on  page  12,  Lesson  1.  Prepare  and  organize 
your  thoughts  carefully  before  trying  to  amplify  them  orally. 
Never  undertake  to  speak  unless  you  have  your  matter  well 
prepared. 

Fourth  Day. — Do  all  seven  of  the  breathing  exercises  carefully. 
Try  speaking  aloud,  first  with  shallow  breathing  and  then  with 
the  approved  kind.  Note  the  difference  in  the  sound  of  the 
voice.     Note  also  the  difference  in  sensation. 

Carefully  regulating  your  breathing,  recite  a  passage  j-ou 
have  memorized — the  Webster  or  the  Clay  peroration,  page  93 
and  page  99,  respectively,  of  Lesson  6.  Read  all  the  conclud- 
ing passages  of  Lesson  6,  holding  the  book  in  the  left  hand 
and  gesticulating  freely  as  you  will  with  the  right.  Carefully 
regulate  the  breathing. 

Fifth  Day. — Plan  an  entire  speech  with  introduction,  body,  and 
conclusion.  The  following  topics  are  offered  as  suggestions: 
(1)   The  rise  of  Japan. 


126  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(2)  Private  Ownership  of  Laud. 

(3)  The  Practieal  Results  of  Social  Legislatiou. 

(4)  Base  Ball,  the  National  Sport. 

(5)  The  Right  to  Inherit  Wealth. 

Do  not  make  more  than  three  main  points  in  the  body  of 
the  speech.  While  delivering  the  speech  orally,  observe  your 
breathing.  This  is  for  practice  and  instruction.  When  ad- 
dressing a  real  audience,  pay  no  attention  to  your  breathing 
unless  you  get  into  trouble,  then  use  correct  breathing  as  a 
remedy. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledj^e  of  tlie  piiiiciples  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  siigfiestife  merely,  dealing  largely'  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  leference. 

1.  AVhy  should  a  speaker  exercise  so  as  to  iini:)rove  his  posture 
and  breathing! 

2.  If  a  man  has  good  ideas  and  is  in  earnest,  does  it  nuike  any 
difference  in  his  effectiveness  as  a  speaker  if  he  stands  awk- 
wardly and  breathes  poorly? 

3.  Have  you  ever  observed  a  speaker  whose  voice  was  weak 
and  unpleasant  to  listen  to  ?  How  did  it  affect  yon  in  listening  to 
his  ideas? 

4.  The  next  time  you  hear  such  a  speaker,  watch  him  closely 
and  see  if  there  is  anything  the  matter  with  his  trunk  posture  or 
liis  breathing.  Do  his  shoulders  rise  and  fall  during  his  speak- 
ing?   Is  he  hunched  over? 

5.  Did  you  ever  observe  the  curve  or  line  of  the  back  of  an 
opera  singer?  Do  singers  who  make  full,  carrying  tones  slouch, 
or  do  the}^  stand  erect  with  chest  high?  Have  you  noted  the 
place  of  greatest  movement  when  they  breathe?  Observe  the 
men  rather  than  the  women,  for  the  dress  of  the  latter  interferes 
with  their  movements  during  breathing.  How  does  a  speaker 
compare  with  a  singer  in  the  matter  of  producing  sounds  ? 

6.  When  you  take  your  breathing  exercise,  do  you  become 
dizzy  ?  If  you  do,  rest  a  moment  or  even  slap  the  cheeks  lightly 
and  the  dizziness  will  cease.  As  you  progress,  this  symptom 
will  disappear. 

7.  Does  the  deep  breathing  make  you  a  bit  tired?  It  will  if 
you  have  been  breathing  incorrectly  hitherto.  Practice  will 
strengthen  the  muscles  inVolv(Ml  and  they  will  work  without 
weariness. 

127 


128  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

8.  What  are  the  two  ways  of  increasing  capacity  mentioned  in 
the  lessons"/ 

9.  Why  would  it  be  bad  to  take  breathing  lessons  to  increase 
capacity  and  control  if  the  posture  were  poor? 

10.  Someone  said  of  a  great  speaker,  "He  owes  his  success 
to  liis  diaphragm."  What  does  that  mean?  Could  it  be  true? 
Why? 

11.  Do  you  stand  correctly?  Practice  the  exercise  given  for 
tlie  second  day  and  the  exercise  given  on  page  110,  over  and  over 
again.    Do  they  help  ? 

12.  Which  breathing  exercises  do  you  find  most  helpful? 

13.  What  is  the  normal  position  ? 

14.  Who  was  Demosthenes?  AYhat  are  some  of  his  famous 
orations  ? 

15.  What  is  the  value  of  a  "good  start"?  How  can  you  over- 
come nervousness? 


LESSON  8 

SUBJECTIVE   ASPECTS   OF   DELIVERY 

While  the  mechanical  requirements  of  correct  posture 
and  breathing  must  be  met,  there  are  also  certain  sub- 
jective attributes  which  are  essential  to  effective  de- 
livery. To  insure  success  with  audiences,  attractive 
personal  qualities  must  exist  in  the  speaker.  These 
qualities  re-enforce  the  message  itself,  they  add  to  its 
weight,  or  they  make  its  acceptance  more  agroealjle. 
Because,  of  deficiency  in  these  subjective  attributes, 
many  a  keen  thinker  is  listened  to  stolidly,  if  not  defi- 
antl}^,  and  his  fairest  conclusions  only  grudgingly 
granted.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  speakers 
with  whom  audiences  are  glad  to  agree  so  long  as  their 
ideas  have  the  barest  plausibility.  Evidently  something 
in  the  speaker  either  helps  or  hinders  the  most  favor- 
able acceptance  of  his  w^ords  by  the  audience.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  this  lesson  to  outline  the  inner  or  subjective 
trnits  which  make  for  efficiency  and  suggest  methods  of 
cultivating  them  in  the  speaker. 

1.  Personality 


\ 


The  broadest  term  we  can  use  to  designate  the  sub- 
jective elements  of  charm,  power,  and  attractiveness  of 
a  speaker  is  personality.  It  sums  up  those  genernl,  ])er- 
manent  attributes  which  show  through  all  his  transitory 
words  and  deeds.     If  that  underlying,  permanent  self 

129 


130  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

appeals  to  us,  we  say  that  the  man  has  a  good  person- 
ality. Naturally  all  do  not  have  the  same  taste  in  this 
matter  and  a  man  may  seem  pleasant  to  one  person  and 
be  colorless  or  even  repulsive  to  another.  Indeed,  as 
widely  as  individuals  differ,  just  so  wide  is  the  diver- 
gence in  response  to  personality.  Yet  there  are  certain 
attributes  which  are  quite  universally  looked  upon  as 
positive  elements  in  a  good  personality.  Let  us  enu- 
merate some  of  these  features  which  are  especially  sought 
for  in  a  speaker. 

(a)    Magnetism 

The  term  magnetism  is  often  used  instead  of  good 
personality.  It  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  successful 
speakers  and  directs  attention  not  so  much  to  what  is  the 
source  of  the  man's  power  as  to  the  effect  it  has  upon 
others.  By  magnetism  we  mean  a  composite  of  personal 
attributes  which  draws  people  to  the  speaker  and  tends  to 
incline  them  to  sympathize  with  or  rally  around  him. 
An  old  gentleman  once  recounted  to  the  writer  the  fol- 
lowing incident  in  the  life  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher. 

The  gentleman  was  from  the  British  West  Indies  and 
was  visiting  New  York,  just  before  the  Civil  War.  All 
his  sympathies  were  with  the  South  on  the  slavery  ques- 
tion and  he  could  not  understand  why  people  like 
Beecher  should  agitate  for  abolition.  Yet,  out  of  curi- 
osity, he  went  one  Sunday  to  the  Broadway  Tabernacle 
to  hear  Beecher  speak  on  slavery.  In  those  days,  such 
special  lectures  were  advertised  by  hand  sticko-s  or 
posters  slapped  up  against  telegraph  poles  and  walls. 
On  this  occasion  the  announcement  said,  ** Henry  Ward 
Beecher  will  speak  on  Slavery,  at  the  Broadway  Taber- 


SUBJECTIVE  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  131 

iiacle,  "  etc.,  etc.  Tliere  was  in  New  York  at  that  time 
a  volunteer  fire  company  made  up  of  ruffians  who  would 
now  be  called  election  repeaters  and  strong-arm  men. 
It  was  led  by  a  great  bully  and  corrupt  politician — 
let  us  call  him  John  Doe.  The  posters  had  not  been 
up  long  before  there  appeared,  under  the  announcement 
that  Beecher  would  speak,  the  words,  "Like  Hell  he 
will. — John  Doe."  Consequently,  those  who  attended 
the  lecture  came  expecting  trouble  and  possibly  blood- 
shed. The  gentleman  from  the  West  Indies  was  in  the 
front  of  the  gallery.  As  he  looked  down,  he  saw  there 
on  the  ground  floor,  filling  all  the  seats  back  from  the 
stage  one-third  into  the  house,  a  great  number  of  the 
red-shirted,  volunteer  firemen-ruffians.  The  leader  stood 
in  front  cursing  and  threatening  in  violent  language 
what  he  would  do  to  Beecher.  At  the  appointed  time, 
Beecher  suddenly  ascended  the  steps  of  the  platform 
and  began  to  speak.  There  was  a  pause  in  the  uproar 
and  then  dead  silence.  Even  John  Doe  and  his  follow- 
ers were  hushed.  In  that,  moment  Beecher  became 
master.  The  stranger  in  the  gallery  afterward  said, 
''If  that  red-shirted  devil  had  dared  to  stir  a  finger  to 
harm  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  I'd  have  jumped  down  on 
his  neck  and  killed  him."  Others  must  have  felt  tlie 
same  way;  even  the  would-be  rioters  were  subdued  by 
the  spiritual  power  of  the  speaker.  This  was  a  victory 
of  character,  personality,  and  magnetism,  quite  inde- 
pendent of  ivhat  Beecher  said. 

Possibly  we  do  not  often  get  such  a  dramatic  proof  of 
the  power  of  magnetism,  but  we  have  all  experienced  the 
force  which  some  men  display  in  manner,  attitude,  and 
presence — external  signs  of  something  permanent  and 
admirable  within.     Others,  less  fortunate,  have  to  con- 


132  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

tend  not  only  with  the  audience  but  also  against  their 
own  unfortunate  selves.  Before  enumerating  some  of 
the  foremost  elements  of  a  good  personality  or  magnet- 
ism, we  may  note  two  things:  First,  magnetism  is 
purely  subjective — it  resides  in  the  speaker  irrespective 
of  what  he  is  saying  at  a  given  time ;  second,  it  seems  to 
have  a  twofold  source — mental  and  physical.  We  shall 
list  mental  traits  first. 

1.  Friendliness  is  the  first  attribute  of  a  magnetic 
speaker.  His  attitude  toward  those  he  addresses  is  one 
of  trustfulness.  He  approaches  with  a  coiifiding  air; 
he  treats  them  as  friends.  The  opposites  of  this  are 
coldness,  arrogance,  superiority,  and  distrust.  It  is 
well  known  that  every  speech  occasion  is  made  by  the 
audience  as  well  as  the  speaker.  He  contributes  to  the 
situation,  but  so  do  they.  What  they  add  depends 
greatly  upon  the  friendliness  he  displays.  If  they  feel 
his  cordiality,  they  will  respond  and  the  very  atmos- 
phere will  vibrate  with  stimulating  good  feeling  between 
the  two. 

The  young  speaker  must  not  get  the  notion  that  he 
can  easily  pretend  to  be  friendly,  that  he  can  smile  and 
assume  an  agreeable  air  when  delivering  a  particular 
speech.  All  this  may  help,  but  the  real  spirit  of  uni- 
versal friendliness  must  be  a  permanent  part  of  his  char- 
acter. If  such  is  not  the  case,  isolated  pretenses  of 
friendliness  are  apt  to  be  patronizing  performances 
which  repel  by  their  conscious  condescension.  Now  the 
question  arises,  how  can  one  develop  this  trait  if  it  is 
wanting  or  weak? 

At  all  times,  the  speaker  must  be  friendly  in  thought 
and  act.  His  daily  intercourse  with  all  people  must  be 
frank,  cordial,  and  interested.     He  must  converse  with 


SUBJECTIVE  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  133 

the  deck  hand  on  the  ferry  boat,  the  conductor  on  the 
car,  and  all  classes  of  men.  He  must  speak  to  them  about 
their  affairs,  their  interests,  and  their  views.  In  a  sim- 
ple and  straightforward  way,  he  must  mingle  with  all 
and  enjoy  the  contact. 

Examine  yourself  well  and  see  if  there  is  any  shrink- 
ing from  your  fellows,  any  awkwardness,  any  aloofness. 
If  it  exists,  set  about  to  eradicate  it;  cultivate  acquain- 
tances, and  make  many  friends.  At  least  try  to  be 
friendly;  let  your  attitude  be  one  of  welcome  and  good 
will. 

2.  Sympatliy  is  not  identical  with  friendliness,  though 
it  may  be  a  consequent.  We  know  many  good-natured, 
friendly  people  who  never  have  any  insight  into  our  feel- 
ings and  wdio  never  understand  us.  They  mean  well,  but 
they  have  no  penetration  or  understanding.  The  word 
sympathy  means  to  feel  with  another.  A  sympathetic 
person  is  able  to  sense  a  situation,  to  enter  into  the  feel- 
ings of  others,  to  appreciate  their  attitudes.  One  reason 
why  a  great  many  well-meaning  men  can  never  become 
successful  speakers  is  that  they  are  unable  to  get  the  other 
fellow's  point  of  view  or  to  apprehend  his  joys  and 
pains.  Edward  Rowland  Sill  expressed  it  very  well  in 
his  Fool's  Prayer  when  he  said: 

These  clurasy  feet,  still  in  the  mire, 
Go  crushing  blossoms  without  end ; 
These  hard,  well-meaning  hands  we  thrust 
Among  the  heart-strings  of  a  friend. 

The  ill-timed  truth  we  might  have  kept — 
Who  knows  how  sharp  it  pierced  and  stung  ? 
The  word  we  had  not  sense  to  say — 
Who  knows  how  grandly  it  had  rung? 


134  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

The  speaker  must  know,  through  sympathy,  just 
where  the  heart  is  sore  and  just  what  is  the  word  to 
cheer.  One  false  step  here  may  estrange  individuals 
and  whole  audiences  to  such  an  extent  that  nothing  can 
possibly  be  said  to  win  their  trust  and  support. 

In  political  and  social  (economic)  speeches,  the  matter 
of  sympathy  with  the  hearers  is  very  important.  No 
headway  can  be  made  when  the  apparently  strange 
point  of  view  of  the  other  fellow  is  not  seen  and  under- 
stood. Those  who  are  well  fixed  with  the  world's  goods, 
speaking  from  pulpit  and  political  platform,  often  fail 
utterly  to  understand  the  dissatisfaction  and  bitterness 
of  the  poor ;  nor  can  they  sympathize  with  the  hot,  blind 
revolt  against  economic  oppression  and  social  inequality. 
They  are  incapable  of  knowing  the  hearts  they  seek  to 
win.  So,  also,  the  rule  works  the  other  way.  Often 
labor  agitators  and  social  reformers,  who  seek  perfectly 
reasonable  and  laudable  ends,  fail  when  addressing  a 
cultivated  audience  because  they  are  unable  to  sympa- 
thize with  the  point  of  view  which  the  ''upper  half" 
holds.  It  will  not  do  to  say,  "Their  view  is  wrong;  I'll 
have  none  of  it."  If  the  object  is  frankly  to  antagonize 
and  win  through  crushing  force,  very  well;  but  few 
movements  can  win  through  sheer,  crushing,  brute  force. 
Even  though  a  speaker  cannot  approve  the  ideas,  atti- 
tudes, and  feelings  of  his  audience,  he  must  be  able  to 
put  himself  sympathetically  in  their  place  and  work 
around  to  new  ideals,  with  that  place  as  the  starting 
point.  A  good  father  understands  the  impulses  of  his 
wayward  boy ;  it  is  that  very  thing  which  enables  him 
to  deal  effectively  with  his  son. 

Sympathy  comes  only  from  wide  experience  and  the 
*'rul)bing  against"  one's  fellow-men.     But  even  this  is 


SUBJECTIVE  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  135 

not  enough;  the  student  must  forget  himself  for  a  time 
and  take  an  interest  in  the  affairs  of  people  apart  from 
his  own,  narrow  interests.  The  best  practical  way  to 
get  into  this  sympathetic  relation  with  others  is  to  do 
them  services  and  show  theiii  kindnesses.  It  is  not 
merely  a  piece  of  goody-goody  advice  to  say  to  the 
oratorical  aspirant,  "Forget  yourself  and  become  ab- 
sorbed in  acts  of  kindness";  for  it  is  only  through  that 
sort  of  intercourse  that  the  heart  of  mankind  becomes 
as  an  open  book.  It  is  a  wonderfully  interesting  book 
which  tells  much  to  eyes  sometimes  blinded  by  tears, 
sometimes  hardened  by  glimpses  of  depravity,  but  far, 
far  more  often  lighted  up  by  a  thrilling  insight  into 
unexpected,  fundamental^  nobility. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  where  sympathy  does  the  speaker 
the  greater  service — in  the  intelligent  search  for  truth 
or  in  the  skilful  imparting  of  it  after  it  is  found. 
Through  it,  his  understanding  of  all  things  is  broadened 
and  deepened ;  through  it  he  makes  it  most  acceptable  to 
the  audience  which  he  understands  and  knows  how  to 
handle. 

Again,  let  us  give  the  warning  that  pretense  will  not 
do;  neither  can  it  be  worked  up  for  special  occasions. 
Each  address  shows  it  as  an  individual  exhibition  of  a 
broad  and  permanent  part  of  the  speaker's  character. 
That  character  is  built  up  day  by  day,  hour  by  hour, 
while  speaking  in  public,  in  private  conversation, 
during  personal  observation  and  even  in  the  silence  of 
meditation. 

To  speak  this  way  of  sympathy  as  an  essential  part 
of  a  speaker's  character  does  not  imply  that  all  speeches 
should  be  mild  in  tone  and  of  a  gentle,  pleading  kind. 
It  does  mean  that  the  sympathetic  speaker  senses  the 


136  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING  ♦ 

tone  which  will  be  most  effective;  he  gets  in  touch  with 
the  prevailing  condition  of  the  audience-mind.  If  some 
thing  must  be  vigorously  denounced,  by  all  means  let 
the  speaker  be  vehement  in  his  righteous  indignation. 
But  let  him  not  denounce  what  the  audience  is  unpre- 
pared to  hear  treated  in  that  manner.  Sympathy  will 
tell  him  where  he  must  get  them  before  opening  the 
attack. 

3.  Earnestness  is  next  to  be  considered.  In  a  sense, 
it  balances  frieiidttness  and  sympathy,  for  while  they 
tend  to  make  a  man  considerate,  this  characteristic 
drives  him  right  onward,  sometimes  even  rough-shod, 
to  his  object.  Earnestness  may  be  called  the  impelling 
or  motive  force  within  the  speaker  which  arises  because 
of  his  interest  in  the  audience,  his  theme,  or  some  object 
he  expects  to  accomplish.  No  man  can  be  in  earnest 
who  does  not  believe  what  he  says  or  who  is  indifferent 
to  its  effect  upon  his  hearers.  When  the  trait  does 
exist,  it  is  of  considerable  weight,  for  earnestness  covers 
a  multitude  of  the  sins  of  bad  delivery  and  poor 
arrangement. 

The  road  to  earnestness  is  honesty.  Say  only  what 
you  truly  believe  and  say  it  for  reasons  which  strongly 
commend  themselves  to  your  judgment.  Never  speak 
merely  for  the  sake  of  saying  something,  but  arise  when 
you  have  a  real  object  before  you  and  when  you  are  sure 
you  have  matter  which  is  worthy  of  utterance  and  likely 
to  accomplish  that  object. 

In  Lesson  8,  we  spoke  of  sincerity  as  one  of  the  qual- 
ities of  a  speaker  which,  during  tlie  opening  remarks, 
win  the  good  will  of  the  audience.  Sincerity  and  earnest- 
ness are  closely  related  and  often  go  together.  In  fact, 
sustained  earnestness — intensitv  of  conviction  and  force 


SUBJECTIVE  ASPECTS  OP  DELIVERY  137 

of  expression — usually  imply  the  existence  of  sincerity. 
But  earnestness  is  the  broader  term;  it  connotes  not 
only  honest,  straightforwardness  but  also  steady,  eager, 
persistent  etfort  in  the  desired  direction.  Be  earnest  in 
your  research,  earnest  in  your  attention  to  plan  and 
organization,  and  above  all,  be  earnest  in  your  delivery. 
This  last  will  be  most  natural  if  the  others  exist  first. 
In  short,  keep  your  object  before  you  from  the  very 
beginning  and  strive  toward  it  with  all  your  might. 

4.  Cansd£jtw^_is  a  potent  influence  on  personality. 
We  do  not  expect  to  treat  it  exhaustively  here.  But 
this  much  can  be  said :  If  a  man  is  advocating  a  cause 
which  is  not  approved  by  his  conscience,  his  power  w^ith 
an  audience  is  greatly  reduced.  Two  classes  of  persons 
make  out  successful  cases — those  of  great  virtue  and 
clear  conscience  and  those  immoral  beings  with  no  con- 
sciences at  all.  But  fortunately  for  the  world,  there  are 
very  few^  of  the  latter.  Most  men,  even  wicked  ones,  have 
consciences  which  can  be  abused. 

This  matter  of  conscience  is  not  only  a  thing  directly 
connected  with  the  object  of  a  particular  speech;  it  has 
a  wider  bearing.  We  need  not  argue  to  prove  that  a 
man  is  handicapped  when  he  tries  to  present  to  an  audi- 
ence a  case  which  he  knows  is  false  or  "queer."  But 
we  do  wish  to  state  a  less  obvious  truth,  namely,  that  a 
man  whose  conscience  is  gnawing  at  him  for  any  reason 
whatsoever  is  thereby  less  capable  to  treat  effectively 
any  subject,  whether  or  not  it  is  related  to  the  thing- 
bothering  his  conscience.  For  this  inner  embarrassment 
interferes  with  his  frank  relations  with  men.  He  has 
something  to  conceal,  he  is  on  the  defensive,  his  air  is 
evasive.  Meditation  on  this  subject  makes  us  realize  the 
deep  significance  of  the  statement  concerning  Sir  Galahad 


138  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

— that  his  strength  was  of  a  hundred  men  because  his 
heart  was  pure.  Let  no  man  try  to  move  others  while 
his  conscience  is  reminding  him  of  his  unfitness. 

5.  Physical  Wcll-Being  obviously  augments  magnet- 
ism. Since  speaking,  in  one  way,  is  a  physical  feat,  a 
sound  constitution  is  a  necessary  aid.  The  speaker's 
lungs  must  be  well  developed,  his  throat  and  vocal  ap- 
paratus in  good  condition.  We  have  already  considered 
the  matters  of  posture  and  breathing;  later  we  shall  give 
the  general  hygiene  or  health  rules  for  a  speaker. 

But  good  health  also  has  a  psychological  effect  upon 
audience  and  speaker.  Men  are  drawn  to  the  speaker 
who  is  physically  vigorous  and  in  good  tone.  He  need 
not  be  exceedingly  large  (though  that  sometimes  helps) 
but  the  appearance  of  fitness  attracts  others. 

The  greatest  influence  that  good  health  has  is  upon 
the  mind  of  the  speaker  himself.  It  makes  him  think 
clearly  and  act  with  sureness  and  confidence.  When 
the  physical  tone  is  low,  one  becomes  timid,  querulous, 
uncertain  of  himself.  Physical  well-being  is  the  founda- 
tion of  mental  balance. 

6.  Other  Less  General  Contributions  to  Personality 
Are  to  he  Desired.  While  all  men  can  cultivate  to  a 
high  degree,  friendliness,  sympathy,  earnestness,  con- 
science, and  physical  fitness,  by  much  the  same  methods, 
tliere  are  other  magnetic  traits  which  are  more  individual 
or  particular.  Among  these  are  wit,  humor,  resourceful- 
ness, breadth  of  information,  and  individual  charms  and 
specialties.  Here  we  can  give  no  definite  directions  for 
their  cultivation  though  we  fully  recognize  the  power  of 
individuality.  Later  we  shall  me  it  this  topic  again.  But 
even  at  this  point  of  development,  the  student  may  profit 
by  one  hint:    Whatever  is  lacking  in  individual  magnet- 


SUBJECTIVE  ASI'ECTS  OF  DELIVERY  139 

ism  may  be  fostered  and  whatever  exists  to  a  small 
extent,  ^^•ill  be  augmented  by  much  practice  in  actual 
speech-making.  To  enlarge  your  individual  powers, 
practice. 

2.  Confidence 

Whatever  the  general  personality  or  magnetism  of  a 
speaker  may  be,  he  must  have  confidence  during  the 
actual  delivery  of  a  particular  address.  By  confidence 
we  do  not  mean  self-control,  for  one  who  is  carried  away 
by  his  passions  and  loses  his  temper  may  be  a  man  with 
a  great  deal  of  confidence  though  of  very  little  self- 
control.  We  do  mean  by  confidence  a  trait  which  en- 
ables us  to  be  natural — to  be  ourselves.  One  has  con- 
fidence when  he  has  no  fear  or  hesitancy  when  facing 
an  audience  and  delivering  a  speech.  He  may  do  poorly, 
l)ut  if  he  is  confident,  his  shortcomings  are  due  to  his 
limitations  as  a  thinker,  a  speaker,  and  a  man,  and  not 
to  a  temporary  apprehension  or  fear.  Confidence,  then, 
is  a  steadying  trust  in  self,  ease  of  mind,  freedom  from 
fear,  and  an  assurance  that  all  will  be  well. 

The  opposites  of  confidence  are  trepidation,  fear, 
panic,  and  nervousness.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  great 
banker  knows  more  about  currency  and  banlving  prob- 
lems than  any  other  man  in  the  country.  He  is  the 
master  mind  in  the  field  of  finance.  But  all  his  life  he 
has  been  confined  to  his  business  and  has  never  ad- 
dressed large  audiences.  Suddenly  he  is  called  upon 
to  outline  his  plan  for  baulking  reform  before  the  legisla- 
ture. Of  what  use  is  his  great  stock  of  knowledge  to 
him  at  this  juncture,  if  the  unusual  situation  of  making 
a  speech  to  senators  and  congressmen  throws  him  into 


140  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

a  panic?  A  better  showing  might  be  made  and  more 
good  accomplished  by  a  professional  speaker  who  had 
crammed  enough  information  to  meet  the  immediate 
needs  of  the  occasion.  Confidence,  an  ease  which  en- 
ables us  to  use  our  powers  to  the  full,  is  fundamental 
to  efficient  speaking. 

(a)    Confidence — A  Tiling  to  Be  Preserved,  not  to  Be 
Acquired 

Confidence  is  not  so  much  a  positive  virtue  as  the 
absence  of  weakness.  Confidence  is  normal  and  lack  of 
it  is  abnormal.  As  a  rule,  men  going  about  their  regu- 
lar business  in  life  do  so  with  confidence ;  it  is  the  unusual 
or  exceptional  thing  which  suddenly  robs  them  of  it. 
How,  then,  shall  we  preserve  our  usual  equanimity,  even 
under  the  stress  of  public  address?  Our  jjroblem  is 
not  to  create  a  new  characteristic,  but  to  prevent  our 
losing  a  good  trait  when  making  a  speech.  Let  us 
therefore  see  what  are  the  things  which  pull  our  ease 
and  complacency  from  under  us  so  that  we  fail,  through 
embarrassment. 

The  undertaking  of  something  which  is  strange  or 
new,  especially  in  the  presence  of  others,  tends  to  de- 
stroy confidence.  The  uncertainty  or  newness  of  the 
activity  is  the  basic  reason  for  loss  of  confidence,  and 
the  presence  of  others  is  an  additional  aggravating  or 
embarrassing  circumstance.  School  teachers  who  con- 
duct their  classes  with  the  calm  of  a  postmistress  lick- 
ing a  postage  stamp,  report  that  they  trembled  with" 
timidity  the  first  time  they  faced  a  room  full  of  pupils. 
But  repeating  the  performance  made  it  commonplace 
jind  usual.     The  first  safeguai'd  against  a  loss  of  con- 


SUBJECTIVE  ASPECTS  OB^  DELIVERY  141 

fidence  is  much  speaking  in  public.  Begin  modestly  and 
join  in  all  the  discussions  of  any  club,  order,  or  society 
to  which  you  may  belong.  Gradually  lengthen  your 
contributions  to  discussion  or  debate,  until  the  thing 
becomes  ordinary  or  usual.  This  matter  of  newness  or 
strangeness  is  the  stumbling-block  of  inexperienced 
speakers. 

(h)  Preparation  and  Confidence 

The  second  destroyer  of  confidence  is  the  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  the  speaker  that  he  is  poorly  prepared. 
This  is  the  AVaterloo  of  the  experienced  speaker.  Often 
one  who  has  had  much  practice  as  a  speaker  and  who 
has  been  successful  attempts  to  speak  impromptu  on 
subjects  not  properly  mastered.  Sometimes  he  makes 
a  strong  beginning,  but  as  he  realizes  that  his  material 
is  poor  in  quality  and  unorganized  in  arrangement,  he 
begins  to  flounder  and  his  confidence  leaves  him.  With 
this,  his  panic  increases  and,  unless  he  wisely  cuts  the 
address  short,  he  gets  deeper  and  deeper  into  trouble, 
making  a  most  unfavorable  exhibition  of  himself.  It 
naturally  follows  therefore  that  one  should  have  ample 
material  well  mastered  not  only  as  to  content  but  also 
as  to  arrangement.  The  ideas  must  be  so  thoroughly 
mastered  that  the  speaker  will  never  be  seized  with  the 
apprehension  that  possibly  he  might  be  at  a  loss  for 
something  to  say.  The  greatest  fear  of  the  good  speaker 
is  that  he  will  be  on  his  feet,  before  the  audience,  with 
nothing  to  say.  Yet  it  is  the  difficulty  most  easily  pro- 
vided against.  Follow  the  simple  rule  "Never  attempt 
to  speak  impromptu  at  any  length."  If  the  speech  be 
written  out  and  read,  the  preparation  should  be  so  thor- 


142  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ough  that  the  speaker  has  no  fear  that  he  will  stumble 
in  the  reading.  If  it  be  written  and  committed  to  mem- 
ory, the  memorizing  should  be  perfect.  If  it  be  pre- 
pared in  thought  but  extemporaneous  in  form  (as  most 
of  the  best  speeches  are),  it  should  be  thoroughly  pre- 
pared. It  is  to  this  last  kind  of  preparation  that  we 
pay  most  attention,  for  this  is  the  style  of  address  most 
useful  to  the  average  man  of  affairs. 

(c)  Rules  for  the  Preservation  of  Confidence 

From  the  two  principles  of  confidence  through  fa- 
miliarity and  confidence  through  preparation  we  get  the 
following  practical  rules : 

1.  Set  yourself  a  definite  task  for  each  speech. 

2.  Have  the  task  simple  enough  so  that  it  is  not  beyond 
a  speaker  at  your  stage  of  development. 

3.  Have  it  thoroughly  planned  and  mastered. 

4.  Do  not  be  tempted  to  go  beyond  tlie  ])lan. 

5.  Sit  down  when  through. 

6.  Do  ALL  OF  THESE  VERY  OFTEN. 

(d)    Auto-Suggestion  and  Confidence* 

It  has  been  said  by  some  who  ought  to  know  about 
confidence  (for  they  are  in  a  sense,  confidence  men)  tliat 
it  should  be  developed  by  a  process  of  self-suggestion — 
a  sort  of  auto-hypnotism.  Their  practical  direction  is 
that  the  speaker  say  to  himself  each  day,  words  to  this 
effect:  '^I  am  a  powerful  thinker;  my  ideas  are  pro- 
found and  I  grow  greater  every  day.  I  see  myself  sway- 
ing audiences;  I  believe  and  know  I  am  a  convincing 
speaker;  the  others  believe  it,  too." 


SUBJECTIVE  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  143 

The  principle  is  true,  but  the  suggestious  are  uot  the 
best.  To  a  certain  extent  we  grow  into  what  we  suggest 
to  ourselves  we  ought  to  be.  It  is  also  true  that  a  good 
opinion  of  one's^^^f  soiiietinies  fosters  a  like  opinion 
in  others.  Usuall}^  when  it  is  empty  conceit  it  has  an 
opposite  effect.  Therefore  it  is  foolish  to  persuade  your- 
self that  you  are  profound  and  eloquent  when  you  are 
not.  Suppose  a  little  peanut-head  of  an  individual  were 
to  succeed  in  convincing  himself  that  he  is  a  master 
mind.  Having  no  real  attainments,  he  becomes  an  in- 
sufferable pest  because  of  his  empty  cockiness. 

It  is  true,  that  if  we  face  audiences  with  fear  and 
uncertainty,  we  are  defeated  before  the  battle  begins. 
It  is  also  true  that  one  who  constantly  depreciates  him- 
self will  lose  in  impressiveness.  But  on  the  other  hand, 
our  suggestions  should  be  based  on  real  merit  and  be 
calculated  to  build  up  constantly  not  only  confidence 
but  a  just  ground  for  it.  Woe  unto  him  of  inflated  con- 
fidence when  he  gets  before  an  audience  and  discovers 
that  he  has  nothing  to  deliver.  Consequently  we  rec- 
ommend that  one  do  not  suggest  to  himself  that,  in  gen- 
eral, he  is  a  person  of  much  weight;  but  rather  that  he 
suggest,*  before  each  specific  task,  that  he  is  well  pre- 
pared and  thoroughly  fit  to  carry  it  out  successfully. 

The  statements  to  be  reiterated  may  be: 

1.  I  have  thoroughly  prepared  this  matter. 

2.  I  possess  fully  tested  evidence  that  my  ideas  are 
sound. 

3.  They  are  worth  standing  up  for. 

4.  I  will  deliver  them  as  prepared  and  then  sit  down. 

5.  Thus,  certain  of  my  thoroughly  prepared  and  care- 
fully arranged  matter,  I  cannot  fail;  the  audience  will 
agree  with  me. 


144  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

If  this  be  done  each  time  any  task  is  undertaken,  gen- 
eral confidence,  resting  on  a  sure  foundation,  will  be 
steadily  built  up. 


3.  Self- Control 

A  lack  of  self-control  is  the  besetting  sin  of  very 
vigorous  and  enthusiastic  speakers.  These  men  often 
work  themselves  up  to  a  state  of  such  excitement  that 
they  (a)  exaggerate,  (b)  say  things  they  had  not  planned 
or  wanted  to  say,  (c)  forget  to  say  what  they  wanted  to 
say,  and  (d)  display  feelings  which  they  should  have 
restrained.  Any  newspaper  reporter  will  tell  you  how 
general  is  the  fault  of  poor  self-control.  Public  men, 
because  of  it,  make  speeches  for  which  thej  are  sorry 
and  sometimes,  we  regret  to  state,  they  brand  a  true 
report  of  such  an  address  as  a  lie.  Newspapers  are 
blamed  for  ''misstatements"  which  in  reality  are  the 
true  records  of  utterances  made  without  self-control. 

The  most  general  precaution  to  insure  self-control  is 
careful  planning.  The  tendency  is  to  adhere  to  a  well- 
made  plan,  while  lack  of  preparation  encourages  the 
pursuit  of  any  chance  fancy.  Yet  one  may  have  the 
opportunity  to  modify  a  plan  successfully  because  of 
some  circumstance  which  emerges  during  the  delivery 
of  the  speech.  If,  in  embracing  such  an  opportunity,  or 
if  the  speaker  realizes  that,  for  any  other  cause,  he  is 
not  having  himself  well  in  hand,  then  a  remedy  must 
be  found. 

The  best  retreat  ^vhen  self-control  is  beginning  to  slip 
away,  is  to  pause,  go  slowly,  and  cast  about  for  a  means 
of  retui'ning  to  the  safe  phm  or  of  terminating  the  speech 


SUBJECTIVE  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  145 

gracefully.     Imitate  the  tortoise.     When  in  troubl(>,  he 
stops,  draws  into  his  shell,  and  then  goes  ahead  slowl}'. 

4.  Tact 

Read  once  more  the  little  extract  about  tact  on  ])age 
10  of  Lesson  1.  It  says  that  tact  is  not  a  sixth  sense, 
but  the  life  of  all  five.  A  tactful  person  sees  little  things 
hidden  from  others,  he  hears  unspoken  opinions,  he 
senses  a  situation.  Volumes  could  be  written  on  this 
subject.    AVe  have  time  for  but  three  brief  remarks. 

(a)  Tact  comes  from  much  contact  with  other  people. 
This  intercourse  must  be  wide  and  intimate  so  that  their 
multitudinous  peculiarities  are  impressed — sometimes 
even  without  the  student's  being  aware  of  it.  Tact  is 
developed  through  mistakes.  If  one  is  pricked  by  an- 
other's resentment,  the  lesson  teaches  him  to  avoid  that 
line  of  communication.  The  tact  of  a  speaker  is  but  a 
complex  combination  attained  after  much  intercourse 
with  individuals  and  many  appearances  before  audiences. 

(b)  In  speaking,  tact  is  usually  more  a  matter  of  know- 
ing what  not  to  say  than  what  to  say.  People  offend, 
generally,  when  they  grow  expansive  and  over-amplify. 
Sometimes  a  speaker  will  try  to  cram  down  the  throats 
of  his  audience  what  his  judg-ment  tells  him  they  will  not 
tolerate.  This  is  a  great  mistake.  It  is  far  better  to 
leave  a  thought  unsaid  than  to  say  it  when  it  is  sure  to 
have  a  bad  effect.  Of  course  one  cannot  be  instructed  in 
the  details  of  tact,  but  a  speaker  will  be  working  in  the 
right  direction  if  he  inclines  to  the  side  of  brevity  ratlier 
than  verl)osity. 

(c)  Tact  is  a  general  development  which  can  be  at- 
tained through  the  cultivation  of  all  the  virtues  men- 


146  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

tioned  in  this  lesson  and  through  constant  contact  with 
all  sorts  of  people  in  all  sorts  of  gatherings. 

5.  Conclusion 

Character,  personality,  tact — in  fact  all  virtues  which 
make  for  social  (and  that  means  oratorical)  success  are 
the  general  results  of  many  particular  victories.  No  one 
can  have  a  pleasant  disposition  who  has  not  thought 
many  pleasant  thoughts  and  done  many  kind  acts. 
Masterful  confidence  is  the  result  of  a  multitude  of  small 
tasks  successfully  planned  and  carried  out.  General 
earnestness  grows  out  of  interest  in  a  number  of  worthy 
objects.  Therefore  we  suggest  that  each  evening  the 
speaker  set  aside  a  "time  for  reflection"  when  he  can 
quietly  review  the  details  of  the  day's  affairs.  At  such 
a  time  he  may  take  stock  of  Inmself,  asking: 

Reflection  Hour 

1.  Did  I  make  a  new  friend  today! 

2.  Did  I  let  pass  an  opportunity  to  make  a  friend ! 

(a)  If  so,  why! 

(b)  Did  pride  stand  in  the  way! 

(c)  Did  selfishness! 

(d)  Did  bashfulness! 

(e)  Did  fear  or  cowardice! 

(f)  Did  any  bitterness  or  inner  embarrassment! 

(g)  Then,  what  did? 

3.  Did  I  niako,  oi-  lei  sli]),  a  chance  acquaintance! 

4.  Did  I  do  anything  to  mak(»  some  one  happier! 

5.  Did  I  let  slip  such  an  opportunity?     Why? 
().   Did  anvone  coufide  in  me  today ! 


SUBJECTIVE  ASPECTS  OF  DELIVERY  147 

7.  Did  I  offend  anyone  today  I 

(a)  If  so,  was  it  necessary! 

(b)  Did  it  serve  any  good  purpose! 

(c)  Did  I  lose  personally  by  itf 

(d)  What  difference  did  it  make  in  my  temporary 
mental  quiet,  in  my  general  disposition,  in 
my  actions! 

(e)  Did  it,  even  for  a  time,  make  me  less  efficient 
in  the  performance  of  some  duty  or  less 
pleasant  to  others  with  whom  I  had  no 
quarrel  whatsoever! 

8.  Did  I  learn  something  new  today  that  I  can  "pass 
on"  to  others  or  that  will  increase  my  efficiency! 

(a)  AVhat  from  a  book! 

(b)  What  from  the  speech  of  others! 

(c)  What  from  personal  observation! 

9.  Did  I  do  or  say  something  I  cannot  thoroughly  ap- 
prove! Something  wiiich  hurt  someone?  Is  this 
becoming  habitual! 

10.  Is  there  something  undone  or  unsaid  which  I  ought 
to  have  done  or  said  or  can  yet  do  or  say! 

Note. —  (Do  it  now,  if  possible;  if  not,  make  a  memo- 
randum which  will  be  followed  at  the  proper  time.) 

Assignment  of  Work 

The  written  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Koep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  your  notebook. 

First  Day. — You  have  read  through  the  lesson.  Now  study  it 
again  carefully,  niasteriug  its  contents.  Do  not  attempt  any 
of  the  exercises  until  after  the  second  reading. 

^Second  Day. — Select  for  a  speech  with  at  least  three  sub-topics, 
one  of  the  following  subjects : 


148  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

1.  Tiie  Federal  Government  should  (or  should  not)  regulate 

"big  business." 

2.  President  Wilson  is   (or  is  not)    right  in  his  contention 

that  the  slackness  in  business  is  psychological. 

3.  Workmen  should  (or  should  not)  be  compensated  b}^  so- 

ciet}^  according  to  their  needs  rather  than  their  esti- 
mated productivity. 

4.  The  denial  of  the  right  of  women  to  vote  is  in  accordance 

with  (or  counter  to)  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution. 

5.  Some  other  subject  in  which  you  are  interested. 
Devote  this  day  to  careful  reading  and  note-taking  on  the 

subject. 

Third  Day. — Further  reading  and  note-taking.     Whenever  using 

material  not  your  own,  be  sure  to  label  all  material  with 

author's  name  and  the  place  where  found. 
Fourth  Day. — "Slake  a  plan  of  your  proposed  speech.    Work  it 

out  very  carefully,  using  in  the  most  effective  way  all  your 

personal  knowledge  and  all  the  material  you  gathered. 
Fifth  Day. — Apply  the  list  of  rules  on  page  142  and  statements 

on  page  143.     Then  commit  your  outline  to  memory  and 

orally  develop  your  speech.      Keep  a  list  of  all  the  sources 

of  information  you  consulted. 

Final  Word 

From  now  on,  keep  the  precautions  on  page  142  always 
in  mind  when  working  on  a  speech. 

Go  over  the  list  of  assertions  on  page  143  every  day 
in  connection  with  a  speech  or  other  task  yon  had  to 
perform. 

Every  evening  indulge  in  the  Eeflection  Hour  outlined 
on  page  146. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

Those  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knnwletige  of  the  principles  in  tliis  h'sson.  'J'hey 
iire  siun/csfirc  nu-rely,  dealinji  laroely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook   for  future  reference. 

1.  What  do  we  mean  by  a  good  personality?  What  is  mag- 
netism ? 

2.  Have  you  ever  liad  dealings  with  a  man  against  whom  you 
had  ])een  prejudiced,  but  who  won  your  respect?  Can  you  tell 
just  what  there  was  about  him  which  impressed  you? 

3.  What  advantages  could  you  gain  as  a  speaker  through 
friendliness?  What  advantages  in  your  usual  lousiness?  Coidd 
you  lose  anything? 

4.  Is  sympathy  a  sign  of  weakness  or  of  strength  ?  What  can 
a  speaker  gain  in  preparing  his  matter  through  his  ability  to 
sympathize?     How  does  it  help  his  delivery? 

5.  What  do  you  mean  by  earnestness?  How  does  it  differ 
from  forwardness  ?    Is  it  ever  apt  to  lead  to  forwardness  ? 

6.  Have  you  ever  had  something  on  your  conscience  which 
affected  your  thoughts  on  other  topics,  the  tone  of  your  voice, 
and  your  attitude  to  individuals  and  groups? 

7.  Which  is  more  important,  intellectual  equipment  or 
physical  well-being?  Are  they  related  at  all?  Why  should  a 
speaker  be  in  especially  good  physical  condition? 

8.  What  is  the  difference  between  confidence  and  conceit? 
Why  do  you  dislike  a  conceited  man?  Why  do  you  approve 
a  confident  man? 

9.  Why  must  general  self-reliance  and  confidence  be  sought 
through  particular,  small  deeds? 

10.  What  are  the  two  surest  precautions  to  secure  con- 
fidence ? 

149 


150  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

11.  Is  it  well  to  lie  to  other  people  ?  Is  it  well  to  lie  to  your- 
self about  yourself?  What  kind  of  auto-suggestion  is  best  to 
help  build  up  confidence? 

12.  Who  is  the  most  tactful  person  you  know  ?  What  seems 
to  be  the  secret  of  that  person 's  success  ? 

13.  What  do  you  think  of  the  possible  benefit  to  be  reaped 
from  our  Reflection  Hour  questions? 

1-4.  On  the  basis  of  100  per  cent  for  a  "perfect"  personality, 
what  would  you  grade  yourself?  Your  best  chum?  Your  boss? 
A  number  of  friends  ? 

15.  What  percentage  in  your  good  i)ersonality  scale  Avoiild 
you  give  for  perfection  in  the  following  lines : 

Tact?  Physical  Weil-Being? 

Magnetism?  Wit? 

Friendliness  ?  Education  ? 

Sympathy  ?  Resourcefulness  ? 

Earnestness?  Self  Control? 
Confidence  ? 

What  others  would  you  add? 

16.  What  are  the  rules  given  for  the  preservation  of  confi- 
dence ? 

17.  What  is  the  value  of  auto-suggestion? 

18.  Could  you  build  up  a  "Reflection  Hour"  along  the  lines 
of  "personal  efficiency"  and  daily  work? 


u 

LESSON  9 

IMAGES  AND  THE  MIND  OF  THE  AUDIENCE 

In  our  first  six  lessons,  we  assumed  that  the  speaker 
had  a  purpose  to  accomplish  through  the  delivery  of  a 
mass  of  material,  referred  to  as  the  message.  Those 
lessons  were  designed  to  indicate  an  effective  way  to 
adjust  the  message  as  a  whole  to  the  mental  condition 
of  the  hearer.  The  principal  means  suggested  was  a 
judicious  organization  of  the  main  subdivisions  of  the 
speech.  But  details  of  treatment,  such  as  the  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words,  the  description  of  scenes, 
the  narration  of  events,  or  the  use  of  evidence  in  argu- 
ment— all  these  were  subordinated  and,  for  a  time,  neg- 
lected in  order  to  focus  attention  upon  the  larger  mat- 
ters of  planning.  We  shall  now  take  up  the  study  of 
the  details  of  speech  composition. 

1.     Word-Painting,  or  the  Representation  of  Images 

(a)     Images  and  Important   Detail    of   the    Organized 
Whole 

This  does  not  mean  that  we  are  to  set  aside  and  for- 
get the  general  principles  of  larger  organization.  The 
perfection  of  a  student  in  his  treatment  of  details  must 
not  be  at  the  expense  of  good  general  planning.  If  the 
structure  of  a  whole  speech  is  poor  but  some  detail  of 
description  is  beautifully  worked  out,  the  effect  is  ridicu- 
lous because  a  part  attracts  more  attention  than  the 
whole.  Good  organization  insures  that  each  detail  used 
in JJie_.de.Yelapinent_wilLJie_gi^:fiii_its  just  emphasis  or 
.  JTnpnrtflTicp — no  more  and  no  less. 

151 


152  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Another  good  reason  for  keeping  the  principles  of  gen- 
eral arrangement  in  mind  is  that  they  are  useful  guides 
even  in  the  treatment  of  details.  For  instance,  just  as  a 
favorable  emotional  set  may  be  needed  to  pave  the  way 
for  an  entire  address,  so  also  it  is  often  desirable  to  pre- 
pare the  audience  in  a  similar  manner  for  the  reception 
of  a  particular  incident.  While  interest  and  attention 
must  be  secured  in  relation  to  the  whole  message,  like 
attitudes  must  always  be  maintained  if  a  detail  is  to 
make  its  own  impression.  Furthermore,  it  is  almost  as 
important  to  plan  the  arrangement  of  minor  descrip- 
tions and  to  fit  their  new  thoughts  to  the  intellectual 
capacity  of  the  auditors  as  to  make  similar  precautions 
for  the  oration  as  a  whole.  Indeed,  the  same  principles 
are  applied.  The  principles  of  favorable  emotional  set, 
attention,  interest,  adjustment  to  previous  knowledge, 
and  sequence  of  parts  are  so  universal  that  they  apply 
first  to  the  general  plan,  then  to  each  division,  and  doAvn 
to  the  smallest  subdivision. 

When  we  speak  of  the  details  which  make  up  or  com- 
pose a  message,  we  mean  the  smallest  mental  states 
(thoughts,  feelings,  impressions,  ideas,  reasons,  etc.) 
which  a  speaker  has  in  his  own  mind  and  which  he  seeks 
to  re-create  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers.  For  instance, 
the  speaker  may  have  a  clear  impression  of  a  great  mul- 
titude cheering  one  who  speaks  for  freedom.  He  might 
close  his  eyes  and,  in  imagination,  see  the  animated 
orator,  high  above  the  crowd,  his  attitude  majestic,  his 
face  as  one  inspired,  his  gestures  bold,  and  his  voice  like 
the  bugle  call  to  battle.  This  picture  we  term  a  mental 
image.  He  who  experiences  it  wishes  it  to  arise  and  be- 
come just  as  vivid  for  each  of  his  hearers  as  it  is  for 
himself.  He  also  wants  them  to'  feel  the  same  thrill 
which  he  feels  as  he  recalls  the  original,  stirring  scene. 
Or,  on  the  other  hand,  he  may  have  in  mind  a  recollection 


IMAGES         ■  153 

of  the  ideal  of  liberty  which  was  behind  the  message  of 
the  orator.  Such  an  abstract  notion  we  term  a  concept. 
The  speaker  may  want  to  expound  the  concept  to  those 
about  him.  More  intricate  still,  he  may  have  an  elabor- 
ate line  of  argument  to  establish  for  their  acceptance, 
justifying  the  speech  of  his  hero.  These  are  typical 
mental  states  which,  more  or  less  complex,  are  welded  to- 
gether as  the  details  that  go  to  make  up  the  message  of 
the  speaker.  All  of  them  must  be  reproduced  in  the 
minds  of  the  hearers,  not  only  as  they  arise  individually, 
but  also  as  they  are  integral  parts  of  an  organized  whole. 
Before  we  leave  the  topic  of  details  of  composition,  we 
shall  treat  the  more  important  and  clearly  distinguish- 
able mental  states  which  a  speaker  may  have  and  which 
he  may  wish  to  transfer  to  the  audience  by  means  of 
words.  Just  now^  we  wish  to  confine  ourselves  to  images, 
or  mental  pictures.  These  are  not  abstract  notions  of 
goodness  or  badness,  right  or  wrong,  beauty  or  ugli- 
ness; they  are  vivid  recollections  of  something  actually 
seen,  heard,  felt,  or  tasted.  Their  originals  were  real 
persons,  things,  and  events.  They  live  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker  and  he  seeks  to  re-create  them  for  his  hearers. 

(h)     Word-Pa  lilting 

One  who  can  arouse  vivid,  concrete  pictures  by  his 
Y/ords  is  sometimes  called  a  word-painter. 

When  Amruzail  describes  what  he  has  seen, 
Speaking  of  sands  and  flocks  and  hilltops  green, 
Such  magic  in  his  voice  and  language  lies, 
That  all  his  hearers'  ears  are  turned  to  eyes. 

The  ability  to  do  this  is  one  of  the  most  fundamental 
attainments  necessary  to  the  effectiveness  of  a  speaker. 
But  just  what  does  he  paint?  Some  idea  of  the  nature 
of  the  mental  image  which   he   re-creates   has    already 


154  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

been  given.    But  we  may  well  pause  to  make  the  subject 
clearer  by  illustration. 

Slowly  and  critically  read  the  following  passage  from 
Edward  Everett's  "The  Glories  of  Morning." 

The  blue  sky  now  turned  more  softly  gray ;  the  great  watch- 
stars  shut  up  their  holy  eyes ;  the  east  began  to  kindle.  Faint 
streaks  of  purple  now  blushed  along  the  sky ;  the  whole  celes- 
tial concave  was  filled  with  the  inflowing  tides  of  the  morning 
light,  which  came  pouring  down  from  above  in  one  great 
ocean  of  radiance ;  till  at  length,  as  we  reached  the  Blue  Hills, 
a  flash  of  purple  fire  blazed  out  from  above  the  horizon,  and^ 
turned  the  dewy  tear-drops  of  flower  and  leaf  into  rubies  and 
diamonds.  In  a  few  seconds  the  everlasting  gates  of  the  morn- 
ing were  thrown  wide  open,  and  the  lord  of  day,  arrayed  in 
glories  too  severe  for  the  gaze  of  man,  began  his  state. 

Notice  that  Everett  does  not  express  any  generaliza- 
tions, such  as  ''The  sunrise  is  most  inspiring"  or  "The 
first  light  of  day  is  thrilling  to  the  beholder."  If  he 
had  said  such  things,  they  might  have  been  accepted  as 
true,  but  no  strong  realization  of  the  picture  of  the  sky 
at  sunrise  would  have  been  obtained.  Instead  he  re- 
vives the  actual  colors  and  brightness  of  the  sky  just  as 
they  strike  a  beholder  at  a  particular  time  and  place. 
He  does  not  use  such  words  as  "pleasant,"  "soothing," 
or  "beautiful"  as  he  describes  the  first  streaks  of  light; 
nor  does  he  label  the  last  burst  of  sunlight  as  "thrill- 
ing," "dazzling,"  or  "inspiring."  He  simply  re-cre- 
ates the  pictures  and  lets  them  make  their  own  sub- 
jective impressions  on  the  hearers.  This  is  objective 
word-painting. 

Now  read  the  following  from  Victor  Hugo's  speech 
in  defense  of  his  son  on  the  question  of  capital  punish- 
ment. (The  introduction  to  this  speech  has  already 
been  given  in  Lesson  4,  page  50.)  Notice  that  Hugo  also 
re-creates  an  actual  scene.  But  he  colors  it  with  his 
own  feelings.    The  object  is  not  so  much  to  make  clear 


IMAGES    >      .  155 

his  own  horror  as  to  fill  the  hearers  with  horror.  Just 
whether  expressing  his  own  feelings  makes  the  impres- 
sion deeper  than  it  would  be  if  the  scene  were  objectively 
presented  to  make  its  own  appeal,  is  a  difficult  question 
to  settle.  But  this  is  a  good  example  of  an  orator  ^s  at- 
tempt, not  only  to  re-create  a  scene,  but  also  to  express 
the  feeling  it  aroused  in  an  original  witness. 

What  are  the  circumstances?  A  man,  a  convict,  a  sentenced 
wretch  is  dragged,  on  a  certain  morning,  to  one  of  the  public 
squares.  There  he  finds  the  scaffold !  He  shudders,  he  strug- 
.gles,  he  refuses  to  die.  He  is  young  yet — only  twenty-nine. 
Ah!  I  know  what  you  will  say.  ''He  is  a  murderer!"  But 
hear  me.  Two  officers  seize  him.  His  hands,  his  feet  are  tied. 
He  throws  off  the  the  two  officers.  A  fearful  struggle  ensues. 
His  feet,  bound  as  they  are,  become  entangled  in  the  ladder. 
He  uses  the  scaffold  against  the  scaffold  1  The  struggle  is 
prolonged.  Horror  seizes  the  crowd.  The  officers, — sweat  and 
shame  on  their  brows, — pale,  panting,  terrified,  despairing, — 
despairing  with  I  know  not  what  horrible  despair, — shrinking 
under  that  public  reprobation  which  ought  to  have  visited 
the  penalty  and  spared  the  passive  instrument,  the  execu- 
tioner,— the  officers  strive  savagely.  The  victim  clings  to  the 
scaffold  and  shrieks  for  pardon.  His  clothes  are  torn, — his 
shoulders  bloody, — still  he  resists.  At  length  after  three 
quarters  of  an  hour  of  this  monstrous  effort,  of  this  spectacle 
without  a  name,  of  this  agony,— agony  for  all,  be  it  under- 
stood,— agony  for  the  assembled  spectators  as  well  as  for  the  con- 
demned man, — after  this  age  of  anguish.  Gentlemen  of  the 
Jury,  they  take  the  poor  wretch  back  to  his  prison. 

The  People  breathe  again.  The  People,  naturally  merciful, 
hope  that  the  man  will  be  spared.  But  no, — the  guillotine, 
though  vanquished,  remains  standing.  There  it  frowns  all  day, 
in  the  midst  of  a  sickened  population.  And  at  night,  the 
officers,  reenforced,  drag  forth  the  wretch  again,  so  bound 
that  he  is  but  an  inert  weight, — they  drag  him  forth,  haggard, 
bloody,  weeping,  pleading,  howling  for  life, — calling  upon  God, 
calling  upon  his  father  and  mother, — for  like  a  very  child  had 
this  man  become  in  the  prospect  of  death, — they  drag  him 
forth  to  execution.  He  is  hoisted  on  the  scaffold,  and  his  head 
falls  1    And  then  through  every  conscience  runs  a  shudder. 

These  two  selections  illustrate  the  way  a  speaker  may 
want  to  present  to  an  audience  a  picture  of  things  just 


156  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

as  they  occur  in  nature.  The  simplest  mental  state  to 
be  re-created  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer  is  the  objective 
image,  uncolored  by  the  expression  of  the  emotion  it 
aroused  in  the  speaker.  Psychologists  would  not  agree 
that  the  image  is  the  simplest  possible  mental  state. 
They  have,  by  analysis,  classified  the  simplest  intellec- 
tual states  as  sensations.  Thus,  if  the  mind  could  be  im- 
pressed simply  with  the  sensation  of  red  without  as- 
sociating it  with  any  object,  such  as  an  apple,  a  book,  or 
a  dress,  then  it  would  experience  a  simple,  isolated  sen- 
sation. But  in  adult  life  we  seldom,  if  ever,  experience 
these  simple  sensations  unrelated  to  an  external  cause  of 
them.  We  get  our  red  along  with  a  number  of  other  sen- 
sations of  size,  shape,  taste,  smell,  etc.,  all  joined  to- 
gether and  coming  from  a  recognized  source,  such  as  an 
apple.  This  combination  makes  up  our  picture,  or  image, 
of  the  apple.  Even  if  a  speaker  did  have  a  simple,  unre- 
lated sensation  in  mind,  he  would  have  little  if  any  rea- 
son for  trying  to  convey  it  to  an  audience.  But  there  are 
many  good  uses  for  fully  composed  pictures,  or  images. 
Most  of  the  pictures  which  fill  our  minds  and  which 
we  may  wish  to  re-create  are  far  from  simple.  We  see 
our  apples,  of  many  hues  of  red  and  yellow,  growing  on 
spreading  trees  with  green  leaves  backed  up  by  the  blue 
of  the  sky.  And  as  we  look,  the  leaves  are  lifted  by  the 
wind  so  that  they  move  and  make  a  rustling  sound,  and 
the  breeze  brings  to  our  nostrils  the  scent  of  the  grass  in 
the  meadows  and  the  ripening  fruit  in  the  orchard. 
Consequently,  though  aware  of  the  theoretical  sensation 
of  scientific  psychology,  we  shall  consider  a  wJiole  pic- 
ture as  the  simplest  mental  possession  which  a  speaker 
may  want  to  share  with  an  audience.  It  is  almost  im- 
possible to  keep  such  a  picture  free  from  the  feeling  of 
pleasure  or  aversion  which  naturally  accompanies  it.  As 


IMAGES  157 

a  result,  the  pure,  objective  image  is  less  frequently  used 
than  the  image  colored  with  subjective  feelings. 

(c)    Pictures  of  Rest  and  of  Action 

The  representation  of  images  of  objects  at  rest  is  some- 
times called  "description"  by  rhetoricians,  while  the 
term  "narration"  is  retained  to  designate  the  recount- 
ing of  a  series  of  events.  But  both  processes,  so  far  as 
the  mental  state  of  the  hearer  and  the  speaker  is  con- 
cerned, are  essentially  the  same.  They  necessitate  the 
re-creation  of  concrete,  actual  things,  originally  per- 
ceived through  the  senses  as  parts  of  the  world  of  fact. 
Consequently,  whether  the  speaker  treats  his  audience 
to  an  oratorical  stereopticon  view  (one  picture  at  rest) 
or  to  a  vitagraph  reel  (a  number  of  pictures  represent- 
ing motion),  his  own  mental  work  and  his  method  of 
treatment  will  be  almost  identical.  In  both  cases  he  must 
recall  mental  pictures;  the  first  is  a  single  one  while  the 
second  is  a  constantly  changing  series.  Indeed,  most 
good  narratives  begin  with  a  description  as  the  starting 
point,  while  the  remainder  of  the  discourse  merely  notes 
the  successive  changes  in  the  picture.  The  added  feature 
is  that  attention  must  be  particularly  paid  to  the  change, 
involving,  as  it  does,  sequence  of  events,  interaction,  rate 
of  movement,  and  conclusion. 

Because  of  their  essential  similarity,  we  shall  group 
together  all  the  impressions  which  the  world  of  actuality 
makes  upon  the  mind  in  the  form  of  images.  To  arouse, 
by  means  of  speech,  like  pictures  for  the  hearer  (without 
attempting  to  explain  or  justify  them)  we  call  "word- 
painting.  ' ' 

Read  the  following  selection  slowly,  pronouncing  each 
word  to  yourself  carefully  so  that  each  image  makes  its 


158 p  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPE AXING 

3ail:  impression.    This  will  make  clear  the  truth  that  a 
narrative  involves  a  succession  of  images. 

Venerable  men,  you  have  come  down  to  us  from  a  former 
generation.  Heaven  has  bounteously  lengthened  out  your 
lives  that  you  might  behold  this  joyous  day.  You  are  now 
where  you  stood  fifty  years  ago,  this  very  hour,  with  your 
brothers  and  your  neighbors,  shoulder  to  shoulder,  in  the 
strife  for  your  country.  Behold,  how  altered!  The  same 
heavens  are  indeed  over  your  head;  the  same  ocean  rolls  at 
your  feet;  but  all  else,  how  changed!  You  hear  no  roar  of 
hostile  cannon ;  you  see  no  mixed  volumes  of  smoke  and  flames 
rising  from  burning  Charlestown.  The  ground  strewn  with 
the  dead  and  dying;  the  impetuous  charge;  the  steady  and 
successful  repulse;  the  loud  call  to  repeated  assault;  the  sum- 
moning of  all  that  is  manly  to  repeated  resistance ;  a  thousand 
bosoms  freely  and  fearlessly  bared  in  an  instant  to  whatever 
of  terror  there  may  be  in  war  and  death — all  these  you  have 
witnessed,  but  you  witness  them  no  more.    All  is  peace. ^ 

2.    The  Use  of  Images  in  a  Speech 

The  following  are  tAT)ical  ways  in  which  images  may 
be  employed  in  a  speech. 

(a)    Used  for  Their  Intrinsic  Worth  as  Information 

We  find  this  use  mostly  in  geographical  lectures  and 
travel  talks.  The  modern  use  of  a  stereopticon  or  even 
moving  pictures  has  reduced  the  necessity  for  skillful 
word-painting  by  the  lecturer.  But  whether  the  words 
of  the  speaker  or  the  lantern  slide  is  the  means,  the  pur- 
pose of  the  image  is  to  make  the  auditor  realize  just  how, 
let  us  say,  Mount  Blanc  or  the  Matterhorn — great  Al- 
pine peaks — looks.  The  lecturer  is  not  especially  con- 
cerned as  to  whether  you  like  the  appearance  or  not.  He 
seeks  first  to  show  you  nature  as  it  is,  whether  you  like 
it  or  not.  An  engineer  trying  to  make  clear  to  a  board 
of  directors  the  nature  of  a  stretch  of  country  through 

'Webster's  First  Bunker  Hill   Address. 


IMAGES  159 

which  he  contemplates   constructing   a  railroad  might 
find  it  useful  to  create  a  series  of  images  of  landscapes. 

(b)     Used  to  Convey  Strong  Emotional  Appeal 

We  feel  most  strongly  what  we  can  actually  realize 
and  we  can  realize  concrete  images  better  than  general- 
izations and  abstractions.  Eead  once  more  all  the  ex- 
tracts quoted  thus  far  to  illustrate  this  lesson.  Notice 
the  emotional  response  you  have  to  Everett's  sunrise 
scene  and  to  Hugo 's  guillotine  scene.  Contrast  this  with 
the  lack  of  emotion  as  you  read  the  argument  on  Cana- 
dian reciprocity  on  page  55  of  Lesson  4.  If  one  w^ere  to 
say,  ''Public  executions  are  repugnant  to  humanity," 
would  it  arouse  so  strong  a  feeling  as  the  detailed  imag- 
ing of  a  single  execution?  The  newspapers  tell  us  that 
ten  thousand  German  soldiers  fell  before  Liege.  But  we 
cannot  conceive  the  scene;  we  cannot  realize  the  horrors 
of  the  battlefield.  Our  sympathy,  pity,  and  horror  of 
war's  ruthless  brutality  come  forth  more  readily  as  we 
get  a  true  picture  of  the  suffering  and  death  of  a  single, 
brave,  young  soldier  boy. 

The  following  extract  from  Henry  Clay's  speech  on  the 
war  with  England  shows  a  skillful  use  of  the  concrete, 
because  of  its  emotion-producing  power. 

It  is  impossible  that  this  country  should  ever  abandon  the 
g:allant  ta.  -  who  have  won  it  such  splendid  trophies.  Let  us 
suppose  that  the  Genius  of  Columbia  should  visit  one  of  them 
in  his  oppressor's  prison  and  attempt  to  reconcile  him  to  his 
forlorn  and  wretched  condition.  She  would  saj'  to  him,  in  the 
language  of  the  gentlemen  on  the  other  side,  "Great  Britain 
intends  you  no  harm ;  she  did  not  mean  to  impress  you,  but  one 
of  her  own  subjects;  having  taken  you  by  mistake,  I  will  re- 
monstrate, and  try  to  prevail  upon  her,  by  peaceful  means,  to 
release  you,  but  I  cannot,  my  son,  fight  for  you."  If  he  did 
not  consider  this  mere  mockery,  the  poor  tar  would  address 
her  judgment  and  say,  "You  owe  me,  my  country,  protection; 


160  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

I  owe  you,  in  return,  obedience.  I  am  no  British  subject ;  I  am 
a  native  oi  old  Massachusetts ;  where  live  my  aged  father,  my 
wife,  my  children.  I  have  faithfully  discharged  my  duty. 
Will  you  refuse  to  do  yours?"  Appealing  to  her  passions  he 
would  continue:  "I  lost  this  eye  in  fighting  under  Truxton, 
with  the  Insurgente ;  I  got  this  scar  before  Tripoli ;  I  broke  this 
leg  on  board  the  Constitution,  when  the  Guerriere  struck." 
If  she  remained  still  unmoved,  he  would  break  out  in  accents 
of  mingled  distress  and  despair — 

"Hardj  hard  is  my  fate!  once  I  freedom  enjoyed, 
Was  as  happy  as  happy  could  be ! 
Oh!  how  hard  is  my  fate,  how  galling  these  chains!" 

I  will  not  imagine  the  dreadful  catastrophe  to  which  he  would 
be  driveii,  hy  an  abandonment  of  him  to  his  oppressor.  It  will 
not  be,  it  cannot  be,  that  this  country  will  refuse  him  pro- 
tection. 

An  emotion  is  a  very  vital  thing.  It  is  not  the  cool, 
well-established  sentiment  of  approval  or  disapproval 
that  we  feel  when  balancing  the  pros  and  cons  of  a  well- 
worked-out  argument.  It  is  an  impulsive  flood  of  feel- 
ing that  rushes  forth  in  the  face  of  a  lively,  concrete  ex- 
perience. In  order  to  be  concrete  and  to  succeed  in 
arousing  the  strongest  emotions,  a  speaker  often  has  to 
limit  the  extent  of  the  image  he  tries  to  re-create.  If 
one  were  master  enough  to  make  the  Avhole,  appalling  im- 
pression of  a  battlefield  strike  the  hearer  with  all  its 
force,  then  the  most  powerful  emotions  of  awe,  dread, 
terror,  and  revulsion  would  be  stirred.  But  few  are  able 
to  conceive  such  a  scene  adequately,  and  even  if  they 
could,  their  re-creations  would  be  beyond  the  grasp  of 
the  average  audience.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  most 
orators  limit  their  concrete  images.  This  limitation  en- 
hances the  probability  of  their  being  realizable,  and  in 
proportion  to  the  degree  of  reality  is  their  emotional 
effect. 


IMAGES  161 

(c)    Used  as  Illustration  of  a  Whole  Class  of  Facts 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  images  make 
deep  impressions.  General  ideas  make  fairly  deep  im- 
pressions only  on  a  cultivated  few  and  have  next  to  no 
influence  upon  the  less-educated  members  of  an  audi- 
ence. Thus,  if  you  wished  to  make  the  generalization 
that  a  college  education  tends  tc  improve  the  manners 
and  appearance  of  young  men,  you  would  not  rest  after 
making  the  bare  statement  itself c  The  general  notion 8 
wrapped  up  in  "manners''  and  ''appearance"  might 
not  be  very  clear  to  some  of  the  hearers.  You  might 
more  profitably  make  a  picture  of  young  John  Williams 
as  he  appeared  before  the  college  board  of  entrance  ex- 
amination. Picture  his  clothing,  his  awkwardness,  his 
shyness,  and  his  confusion;  make  the  audience  see  a 
whole-hearted  but  rough,  country  youth.  Then  draw  an- 
other picture  of  the  calm,  polished,  self-possessed,  and 
correct  John  Williams  on  the  commencement  platform 
delivering  the  valedictory  address.  These  images  will 
not  only  give  very  definite  meaning  to  the  two  words 
mentioned  but  will  give  life  to  what  might  be  a  color- 
less and  but  faintly  apprehended,  general  truth. 

The  advertisers  of  patent  medicines  take  advantage  of 
the  force  of  images  to  represent  a  general  argument. 
They  print  a  picture  of  James  Smith  before  taking  the 
treatment  and  James  Smith  after  taking  the  treatment. 
The  eye  takes  in  at  a  glance  more  than  a  long,  abstract 
argument  could  ever  supply. 

Obviously,  if  the  speaker  intends,  not  only  to  elucidate 
a  general  thought  which  is  abstract  and  difficult  until  a 
'specific  instance  is  found  to  make  it  clear,  but  also  to 
clothe  it  with  feeling,  the  image  representation  is  most 
desirable.  In  the  following  passage  by  the  greatest 
word-painter  and  prose  poet  who  ever  lived,  Ingersoll  is 


162  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

trying  to  bear  home  the  idea  that  the  pomp  and  power 
of  the  conqueror  do  not  compensate  for  tlie  loss  of  peace 
and  affection  which  the  humblest  peasant  can  have.  But 
notice  how  the  concrete  treatment  enhances,  not  only 
the  thought,  but  also  the  feeling. 

I  thought  of  the  orphans  and  widows  he  had  made,  of  the 
tears  that  had  been  shed  for  his  glory,  and  of  the  only  woman 
who  ever  loved  him,  pushed  from  his  heart  by  the  cold  hand 
of  ambition.  And  I  said,  "I  would  rather  have  been  a  French 
peasant  and  worn  wooden  shoes.  I  would  rather  have  lived 
in  a  hut  with  a  vine  growing  over  the  door,  and  the  grapes 
growing  purple  in  the  amorous  kisses  of  the  autumn  sun.  I 
would  rather  have  been  that  poor  peasant,  Avith  my  loving 
wife  by  my  side,  knitting  as  the  day  died  out  of  the  sky,  with 
my  children  upon  my  knees  and  their  arms  about  me.  I  would 
rather  have  been  that  man,  and  gone  down  to  the  tongueless 
silence  of  the  dreamless  dust,  than  to  have  been  that  imperial 
impersonation  of  force  and  murder,  known  as  Napoleon  the 
Great.2 

But  a  word  of  caution  must  here  be  offered.  If  a  spe- 
cific instance  is  to  be  selected  to  make  a  general  state- 
ment more  forceful  and  clear  in  thought  and  more  pro- 
vocative of  emotion,  it  must  be  a  fair  example.  During 
the  first  two  weeks  of  the  great  European  War  of  1914, 
the  papers  in  America  got  most  of  their  news  from  anti- 
German  sources.  One  day  there  was  a  description  of  the 
brutal  treatment  of  some  French  civilians  who  were 
caught  in  Germany  before  they  could  return  to  their  own 
country.  The  article  was  most  graphic  and  had  for  its 
climax  the  shooting  of  one  young  student  who,  after 
many  knocks  and  insults,  cried,  "Vive  la  France."  Tt 
is  probable  that  no  such  scene  took  place.  Furthermore, 
if  it  did,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  it  was  at  all  typical 
of  what  Germany  as  a  whole  was  doing.  We  hold  no 
brief  for  Germany  nor  the  German  kaiser;  we  merely 
point  out  that  where  a  specific  instance  is  supposed  to 

^Ingersoll,  Robert  G.,  Napoleon. 


IMAGES  163 

represent  a  number  of  cases  or  a  general  principle,  the 
speaker  should  exercise  the  greatest  care  to  b  i  sure  that 
his  example  is  truly  representative.  The  very  fact  that 
the  particular  case  makes  such  a  powerful  impression 
creates  a  strong  responsibility  to  have  that  case  a  just 
and  typical  one. 

If  ever  you  are  opposing  another  who  selects  preju- 
dicial instances,  the  revelation  of  his  unfair  bias  is  sure 
to  have  an  effect  upon  the  audience. 

3.    The  Senses  and  Image-Making 

It  will  be  noticed  that  a  complete  picture  or  image  is 
made  up  from  the  detailed  report  of  the  various  senses. 
Thus,  Webster's  picture  of  the  British  charge  up  Bunker 
Hill  gives  the  report  of  the  eyes  when  it  refers  to  the 
sky  above  and  the  ocean  rolling  below,  the  men  standing 
shoulder  to  shoulder,  and  the  ground  strewn  with  the 
dead  and  dying.  The  ear  contribution  is  evident  in  the 
'^roar  of  hostile  cannon";  the  senses  of  touch  and  mus- 
cular effort  are  also  there,  certainly  for  the  veterans  to 
whom  Webster  is  speaking — men  who  had  taken  part  in 
the  hand-to-hand  struggle. 

We  may,  therefore,  say  that  knowledge  of  the  world 
comes  through  the  senses  and  a  remembered  picture  or 
image  is  the  recollected  reports  of  the  senses  in  certain 
combinations.  Now  it  has  been  discovered  that  some 
people — in  fact,  most  people — ^have  one  sense  developed 
above  the  others  and  possibly  another  one  hardly  devel- 
oped at  all.  They,  after  an  experience,  such  as  the  wit- 
nessing of  a  boat  race,  might  get  clear  eye  impressions 
while  they  respond  but  poorly  to  auditory  impressions 
and  therefore  have  but  hazy  recollections  of  sounds.  An 
eye-minded  person  trying  to  describe  the  boat  race  would 
report  the  impressions  of  the  color  of  the  river,  the  green 


164  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

banks,  the  shining  racing  shells,  the  eight  oars  resting 
on  the  out-riggers,  the  sun  striking  the  bare  shoulders 
of  the  muscular  rowers,  the  blue  shirts  of  one  crew  and 
the  red  of  the  other,  and  all  along  the  course,  he  would 
see  again  the  hundreds  of  small  boats  and  the  many  peo- 
ple with  their  riot  of  vari-colored  flags.  But  an  ear- 
minded  person  would  recall  the  roar  of  the  crowd,  the 
short,  barking  yells  of  small  groups  of  students,  the 
crack  of  the  starting  gun,  and  the  swish  of  the  oars  as 
they  feathered  over  the  little  waves. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  a  speaker  should  develop  all 
his  senses  to  an  excellent  state  of  keenness.  He  should 
see  well  and  retain  in  his  mind  all  his  visual  impressions ; 
he  should  hear  distinctly  and  have  clear  auditory  images 
or  remembrances;  he  should  distinguish  smells,  tastes, 
and  degrees  of  temperature  as  well  as  retain  impressions 
of  motion  and  muscular  effort.  Only  by  developing  all 
the  senses  so  as  to  get  good,  clear,  and  deep  impressions 
from  them  can  the  speaker  hope  to  stock  his  mind  wdth 
complete  and  trustworthy  pictures.  One  who  has  such  a 
stock  to  draw  upon  is  said  to  possess  a  good  imagination. 
It  is  from  such  a  stock  that  the  poets,  dramatists,  and 
novelists  draw.  The  speaker  or  orator  must  also  have 
such  a  source  of  material. 

Such  a  perfection  of  imagination  is  necessary  to  the 
speaker,  not  only  that  the  pictures  for  his  own  mental 
use  may  be  complete,  but  also  that  he  may  reach  all  his 
hearers  when  he  wishes  to  treat  a  concrete  situation.  If 
his  images  were  one-sided,  all  addressed  to  the  ear,  the 
eye-minded  auditors  would  get  little  from  them.  Lan- 
guage expressing  most  perfect  images  of  sight  and  smell 
has  no  meaning  or  but  a  very  hazy,  general  meaning  to 
an  auditor  who  is  almost  entirely  ear-minded.  There- 
fore, since  people  are  strong  in  one  sense  and  weak  in 
another,  the  orator  must  assail  them  through  the  chan- 


IMAGES 


165 


nels  of  all  the  senses.  The  greatest  orators  have  the 
rounded  development  which  makes  their  messages  have 
meaning  and  force  to  all  classes  of  people.  Naturally, 
some  pictures  are  distinctly  for  the  eye  while  others  are 
essentially  symphonies  of  sound.  The  most  skilled 
speaker  brings  out  all  that  can  be  brought  out  in  each 
situation.  Where  it  suits  his  purpose  to  emphasize  one 
or  another  aspect,  he  is  equipped  to  do  so. 

Carefully  read  the  illustrations  of  this  lesson  and  note, 
in  a  table  such  as  the  following,  the  nature  and  number  of 
sense  impressions  in  each  passage  quoted. 


Everett 

Hugo 

Webster 

Clay 

Ingersoll 

~   Sight  Images 

-  Sound      "      

-  Taste       "      

Motion    "      ' 

Temperature 

*-Smell.  .    .    . 

y 

^^ 

\~ 

'^^' 

'Touch 

Effort 

The  test  is  to  read  carefully  and  try  to  see  which  of 
your  own  senses  is  stimulated  to  reaction.  Do  you  see 
with  your  '' mind's  eye,"  do  you  seem  to  hear  a  roar,  do 
you  feel  the  effort  or  strain  of  conflict,  etc.  % 

Now  examine  yourself  and  see  if  you  are  weak  in  re- 
membering some  of  the  sense  aspects  of  some  of  your 
own,  original  experiences.  Go  to  your  business  some 
morning  a  half  hour  earlier  than  the  opening  time.  As 
soon  as  you  arrive  at  the  office,  sit  down  and  write  as 
full  a  report  as  you  can  of  the  impressions  of  your  car 
ride  during  the  last  five  blocks  of  travel.  Eead  your  re- 
port and  see  if  it  overemphasizes  the  eye  element  or  the 
ear  element.  Notice,  during  the  actual  writing,  if  certain 
things  which  your  reason  tells  you  must  have  been  experi- 
enced have  grown  hazy  in  detail  or  been  forgotten.  Have 


166  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

you  failed  to  retain  a  picture  of  the  woman  opposite  you 
in  the  car — the  color  of  her  hat,  dress,  and  shoes?  On 
the  other  hand,  have  you  a  clear  realization  of  the  sensa- 
tion of  motion  or  movement  ?  There  is  no  doubt  that  you 
will  discover  that  you  are  weak  in  some  respects  and 
strong  in  others.  Then  again  you  may  have  very  clear 
recollections  of  things  but  be  unable  to  express  them  in 
words.  That  is  a  language  difficulty  which  we  shall  con- 
sider in  the  next  lesson.  Just  now  we  want  to  find  out 
which  of  your  sense  reports  are  weakest  and  least  trust- 
worthy, whether  you  can  tell  others  about  it  or  not. 

From  now  on,  make  many  observations  of  the  kind  jast 
described  and  attend  especially  to  the  things  which 
should  appeal  to  your  weakest  sense.  That  weak  spot 
nmst  be  built  up  by  careful  use.  Just  as  one  who  begins 
to  play  billiards  is  at  first  awkward  and  unskillful  and 
later  acquires  skill  through  use,  so  a  sense  may  be 
brought  to  a  high  point  of  discernment  through  constant 
practice.  After  making  your  observations,  try  to  repro- 
duce them  in  words  both  orally  and  in  writing. 

Eeading  books  Avill  do  but  little  to  develop  your  image- 
making  capacity  in  the  places  where  it  is  weak.  It  may 
add  some  individual  pictures  to  your  stock  where  the' 
sense  that  appreciates  them  is  strong.  But  literature 
does  not  build  up  the  weak  sense,  for  the  words  of  an 
author  who  is  creating  an  eye  impression  have  no  mean- 
ing to  one  who  is  ear-minded  and  whose  visual  sense  is 
poor.  The  direct  study  of  nature  and  man  with  your 
own  senses  is  the  only  foundation  for  image-making.  Go 
out  into  the  fields  and  woods  and  observe  with  all  the 
senses,  especially  exercising  those  which  self-examina- 
tion has  shown  you  are  weak.  In  the  city  also,  observe 
streets  and  buildings,  machines  and  men.  Do  not  over- 
look any  detail.     Crowd  your  mind  with  sense  impres- 


IMAGES  167 

sions.  You  will  find  the  game  of  observation  a  fascinat- 
ing one  and  new  delights  will  be  opened  to  you  as  your 
weaker  organs  of  perception  are  gradually  strengthened 
and  bring  new  treasures  to  the  mind. 

In  the  next  lesson  Ave  shall  speak  of  the  way  in  which 
one  maj"  best  express  his  images  for  the  benefit  of  others, 
but  first  the  speaker  must  have  images  in  his  own  mind. 
That  means  accurate  and  deep  sense  impressions  through 
careful  observation  and  the  faithful  retention  of  the 
combined  impressions  as  a  whole  picture  or  image. 
There  is  no  other  way  to  develop  the  imagination. 

Assignment  of  Work 


Tlie  wiittcii  cxiToises  in  this  t-ntire  lesson  slioiil-  lo 
carefully  \\  orked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  vour  notebook. 


First  Day. — You  have  read  through  the  lesson.  Study  it  care- 
fully and  try  to  answer  the  test  questions  which  follow. 
During  another  painstaking  reading,  try  to  bring  to  mind 
clearly  all  the  images,  or  pictures,  which  are  in  the  illus- 
trating passages.  Notice  that  the  best  results  are  attained 
when  your  ivliole  attention  is  upon  the  picture  and  your 
reading  is  slow  enough  to  allow  each  part  to  form  itself 
fully.  Rapid  and  careless  delivery  interferes  with  clear 
imagination. 

Second  Day. — Write  out  the  three  concrete  pictures,  with  all 
details  of  sense  appeal,  in  one  of  the  following  groups : 
(a)    " The  setting  of  the  sun  fills  one  with  a  sense  of  quiet 
majesty." 
"Niagara    plunges    on,    a    never-dying    source    of 

power." 
"The  capitol  at  Washington  is  like  a  white  coronet 
upon  the  brow  of  the  nation." 
(b)  Describe  the  gathering  of  a  crowd. 
Describe  a  fire. 

Picture    some    thrilling   exploit    in    a    very    concrete 
way. 


168  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Third  Day. — Outline  a  speech  on  one  of  the  following  subjects, 
making  a  picture  the  means  of  appeal : 

(a)  Better  factory  conditions  for  unskilled  labor.     Pic- 

ture an  individual  worker  in  wretched  surroundings. 

(b)  Floating  hospitals  for  sick  babies.     Picture  a  suffer- 

ing infant  in  a  hot,  crowded,  squalid  tenement. 

(c)  Railroad  reform  to  benefit  the  farmer.     Picture  an 

orchard  with  fruit  rotting  on  the  ground  because 
high  rates  and  poor  railroad  service  make  it  impos- 
sible to  market  it. 

(d)  Any  other  subject  which  can  be  represented  in  ap- 

peal by  a  vivid  picture. 

Fourth  Dai/.— Develop  orally  one  of  the  outlines  of  the  third 
day.  Notice  whether  or  not  the  image  revives  fully  in  your 
mind.  If  it  does  not,  your  imagination  needs  further  train- 
ing through  observation.  Do  you  find  the  image  clear  but 
experience  difficulty  in  finding  words  to  express  it  ade- 
quately? In  that  case,  either  you  are  weak  in  vocabulary 
or  you  have  not  planned  the  matter  well. 

Fifth  Day. — During  the  first  four  days,  be  on  the  "look-out" 
for  a  scene  or  event  which  is  especially  impressive  and 
worthy  of  expression  to  others.  For  this  day 's  work,  care- 
fully note  down  all  the  elements  of  sense  impression  it 
liad — color,  movement,  sound,  etc.  Tabulate  them  all  and 
then  write  a r-omplete  word-picture.  (Append  tlie  tal)uhition 
to  the  word-picture  in  your  notebook.) 

An  expert  speaker  does  not,  as  a  rule,  go  through  such  a 
laborious  and  painstaking  preparation  for  his  pictures,  but 
it  is  an  exercise  which  will  rapidly  make  its  further  use  un- 
necessary. 

Additional  Reminders 

1.  How  is  your  breathing?" 

2.  Are  you  carrying  yourself  well? 

3.  Do  you  control  your  breath  well  during  speaking? 

4.  Do  you  criticise  and  observe  other  speakers? 

5.  Are  you  keeping  up  the  reflection  hour? 

6.  Do  you  criticise  your  own  speaking  and  keep  notes 
about  it? 

7.  Are  you  observing  irifh  all  your  senses  so  to  to  fill  your 
mind  with  a  wealth  of  images? 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
liis  knowknlge  of  tlie  ])rinoiph^s  in  this  lesson.  Tliey 
are  sufif/rstirr  merely,  dealinii'  lar<rely  witli  the  praetieal 
applieation  of  the  i)rineiples.  and  ar<'  to  lie  placed  in  the 
notehook   for  future  reference. 

J.  Has  the  general  mastery  of  speech-planning  any  value  in 
detail  work? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  ** word-painting"?  "Who  is  the  best 
word-painter  you  have  ever  heard?  Who  the  best  you  have 
read? 

3.  Why  is  a  concrete  picture  stronger  than  an  abstract  state- 
ment? Can  an  ignorant  man  usually  grasp  the  concrete? 
Does  he  have  difficulty  with  the  abstract?  Would  a  highly- 
educated  man  grasp  both?    Would  he  object  to  either? 

4.  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  that  an  image  or  picture 
is  "a  combination  of  sensations"? 

5.  If  a  man  were  deaf  from  birth,  what  concrete  experiences 
would  he  fail  to  appreciate?  If  he  were  blind,  what  kind  of 
appeals  would  be  lost  upon  him? 

6.  Are  all  normal  people  "in  full  possession  of  all  their 
senses"?  What  does  the  answer  to  this  question  suggest  to 
the  speaker? 

7.  As  you  recollect  an  experience,  which  sense  elements  are 
strongest  ?  Which  weakest  ?  As  you  read  or  hear  word-paint- 
ings,  which  kind  gets  the  best  response  from  you?  What  use 
of  this  self-analysis  will  you  make  as  a  speaker? 

8.  What  are  the  uses  of  concrete  images  mentioned  in  this 
lesson  ? 

9.  Do  you  know  why  a  concrete  image  will  arouse  strong 
feelings  when  a  clear  statement  in  abstract  form  leaves  the 
audience  cold? 

10.  What  is  an  unfair  use  of  a  concrete  image  ? 

169 


170  TEST  QUESTIONS 

1  1 .     What  examples  of  good  word-painting  can  you  recall 
from  3^our  reading? 

12.  Who  was  Victor  Hugo? 

13.  What  is  a  "  sense  impression ' '  ? 

14.  What  is  the  best  procedure  to  develop  ability  in  image- 
making? 


LESSON  10 
the  expression  of  images  and  vocabulary-building 

1.  The  Expression  of  Images 

Our  last  lesson  introduced  the  subject  of  images,  ex- 
plaining their  nature  and  use  in  public  addresses  and 
outlining  methods  by  which  the  student  might  stock  his 
mind  with  many  complete  and  clear  pictures. 

(a)  The  Nature  of  Images 

We  may  here  add  a  word  or  two  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  some  mistaken  notions  concerning  image- 
making,  or  imagination.  Imagination  is  not  a  ''faculty" 
or  a  special  department  of  the  mind,  separated  in  some 
mysterious  way  from  another  part  called  the  "reason." 

Indeed,  the  imagination  is  very  closely  related  to  rea- 
son. Let  us  illustrate.  Suppose  you  were  trying  to 
reason  out  w^hich  of  two  men  would  make  the  better 
manager  of  a  business.  You  would  call  up  pictures  of 
each  one  in  various  activities  and  facing  different  prob- 
lems. Then  you  would  decide  which  set  of  impressions 
was  more  favorable.  Thus,  to  judge  between  two  men — 
to  exercise  reason,  you  first  have  to  hold  them  clearly 
in  mind  by  an  act  of  imagination.  Just  as  every  act 
of  reason  carries  with  it  some  imagination,  so  also  no 
one  could  imagine,  or  revive,  pictures  unless  he  was  able 
to  remember.  You  could  not  call  up  a  picture  of  a  pleas- 
ant scene  unless  the  mind  had  retained  its  impression. 
The  imagination,    therefore,    acts    also    hand    in    hand 

171 


172  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

with  memory.  The  man  who  has  many  experiences  and 
who  can  retain  and  recall  them  is  likely  to  be  equipped 
to  appreciate  all  future  experiences  the  better  and  to 
reason  more  clearly.  Consequently,  exercises  in  memory 
and  imagination  are  of  practical  benefit  for  the  whole 
intellectual  development. 

Not  only  must  we  avoid  the  fallacy  of  considering 
imagination  a  separate  and  independent  department  of 
the  mind,  but  we  must  also  refrain  from  confusing  it  with 
one  of  its  by-products — the  fancy.  Let  us  consider  the 
difference  betw^een  the  broad  term  imagination  and  the 
narrower  expression  fancy.  When  we  say  that  a  man 
has  a  good  imagination,  we  have  used  the  wrong  word 
if  we  mean  to  convey  the  notion  that  he  is  a  mere 
romancer  who  pictures  forth 'the  impossible  and  unbe- 
lievable. Imagination,  for  the  most  part,  deals  with  what 
is  real ;  it  reproduces,  for  further  inspection,  real  things 
which  were  once  seen  or  heard.  There  are  three  ways 
in  which  the  real  experiences  of  life  are  revived  in  image 
form  by  an  act  of  imagination. 

First,  there  is  the  simple  revival,  or  calling  to  mind, 
of  a  scene  or  transaction  just  as  it  originally  took  place. 
One  says,  ''I  can  close  my  eyes  and  see  the  whole  thing 
over  again."  This  is  simple  imagination,  or  reproduc- 
tion. 

Second,  there  is  the  reproduction  of  parts  of  different, 
real  experiences  in  new  combinations  and  relationships. 
Here  we  have  creative  imagination.  It  is  what  enables 
an  artist  who  has  seen  one  girl  with  sparkling  eyes, 
another  with  a  blooming  complexion,  and  a  third  with  a 
crown  of  golden  hair,  to  combine  all  tlie  best  features 
of  the  various  individuals  in  one  picture  of  an  "imag- 
inary," ideal  girl.  Creative  imagination  lies  behind 
every  invention,  for  the  inventor  imagines  old  things 
in  new  combinations — new  arrangements  which  will  give 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  173 

new  benefits  to  man.  The  military  strategist  must  imag- 
ine his  forces  and  those  of  the  enemy  in  new  positions. 
The  social  reformer  imagines  the  old  elements  of  society 
in  new  relations.  In  short;  all  progress  depends  on  the 
reasonable  combination  of  existing  tilings  in  new  rela- 
tionships through  acts  of  creative  imagination. 

Third,  past  experiences  or  parts  of  experiences  may  be 
revived  in  a  whimsical  rearrangement,  so  that  the  whole 
reconstruction  is  ridiculous  or  impossible.  This  is  the 
amusing  or  freakish  play  of  the  imagination  which  we 
call  fancy.  It  uses  real  elements  as  its  material  but  it 
obeys  no  laws  or  probability  in  the  new  combinations  it 
produces.  Here  we  have  the  fabulous  creatures,  half 
man  and  half  lion,  the  giants  with  eagle  beaks,  and  all  the 
monsters  and  impossibilities  of  fairy  tales.  Often  we 
find  the  fancy  playing  an  important  part  in  humorous 
addresses.  The  speaker  provokes  laughter  by  portray- 
ing incongruous  or  ridiculously  impossible  situations. 
Such  a  play  of  fancy,  we  note  once  more,  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  the  whole  field  of  imagination.  It  is  but  a 
small  and  relatively  unimportant  part  of  it.  But  all 
forms  of  imaginative  reconstruction  rest  upon  initial 
sense  perception.  We  must  make  original  observations. 
We  must  come  in  touch  with  real  life.  Only  in  this  way 
can  the  mind  be  stored  with  a  wealth  of  impressions 
which  may  be  recalled  as  a  basis  for  new  combinations.* 

iQne  might  object  to  the  statement  that  our  imagination 
must  have  real  experiences  to  build  upon,  by  saying  that  a 
person  can  get  pictures  or  images  to  draw  upon  simply  by 
reading  many  imaginative  books ;  that  is,  we  can  borrow  from 
the  storehouse  of  the  author.  But  what  we  read  is  only  un- 
derstood in  so  far  as  what  we  read  comes  within  the  limits  of 
what  wf-  have  lived  through.  We  can  understand  the  novel  com- 
binations of  a  writer  only  if  we  have  an  experience-basis 
which  puts  us  in  first-hand  possession  of  the  elements  he  uses 
in  fictitious  combinations.  It  is  well  to  read  these  books,  but 
there  must  be  parallel  observation  and  concrete  experience. 


174  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(6)    Planning  for  Image  Expression 

Lesson  9  gave  exercises  to  insure  the  existence  of 
images  in  the  mind  and  only  incidentally  called  for  any 
expression  of  the  images.  This  lesson  will  pay  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  problem  of  expression.  Granted  that 
you  have  the  pictures  in  mind,  how  will  you  make  them 
clear  to  the  audience  1  Your  first  problem  will  be  one  of 
planning  and  your  second  will  be  the  selection  of  words. 
This  last  leads  us  to  the  field  of  vocabulary-building. 

We  all  know  that  a  mountain  viewed  from  a  distance 
of  twenty  miles  makes  a  picture  quite  different  from  one 
seen  while  standing  at  its  base.  There  is  a  difference  in 
outline.  There  is  also  a  great  difference  in  color  and  de- 
tail. A  mountain  from  a  great  distance  is  a  uniform 
gray  or  green,  let  us  say.  Near  by  we  see  patches  of  bril- 
liant green,  earth  color,  and  rock.  Furthermore,  great 
masses  which  constitute  the  perceptible  details  in  the 
distant  view  are  not  seen  at  all  as  units  when  a  person 
stands  at  the  very  foot  of  the  ascending  path.  Conse- 
quently, in  presenting  an  image  to  others,  the  first  thing 
to  establish  is  the  point  of  view.  This  viewpoint  governs 
the  general  outline  and  the  refinement  of  details. 

1.  The  Vieivpoint. — In  the  following  passage  from 
Edward  Everett's  Three  Pictures  of  Boston,  observe  the 
manner  in  which  he  establishes  the  viewpoint  and  con- 
sider how  much  he  would  lose  in  effectiveness  if  this  ele- 
ment were  omitted. 

To  understand  the  character  of  the  commerce  of  our  own 
city,  we  must  not  look  merely  at  one  point,  but  at  the  whole 
circuit  of  country  of  which  it  is  the  business  center.  We  must 
not  contemplate  it  only  at  this  present  moment  of  time,  but 
we  must  bring  before  our  imaginations,  as  in  the  shifting 
scenes  of  a  diorama,  at  least  three  successive  historical  and 
topographical  pictures;  and  truly  instructive  I  think  it  would 
be  to  see  them  delineated  on  canvas.     We  must  survev  the 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  175 

first  of  them  in  the  company  of  the  venerable  John  Win- 
throp,  founder  of  the  state.  Let  us  go  up  with  him  on  the 
day  of  his  landing,  the  seventeenth  of  June,  1630,  to  the 
heights  of  yonder  peninsula,  as  yet  without  a  name.  Landw^ard 
stretches  a  dismal  forest;  seaward,  a  waste  of  waters,  un- 
spotted with  a  sail,  except  that  of  his  own  ship.  At  the  foot 
of  the  hill,  you  see  the  cabins  of  Walford  and  the  Spragues, 
who — the  latter  the  year  before,  the  former  still  earlier — had 
adventured  to  this  spot,  untenanted  else  by  any  child  of  civi- 
lization. On  the  other  side  of  the  river  lies  Mr..  Blackstone's 
farm.  It  comprises  three  goodly,  hills,  converted  by  a  spring- 
tide into  three  wood-crowned  islets ;  and  it  is  mainly  valued 
for  a  noble  spring  of  fresh  water,  which  gushes  from  the 
northern  slope  of  one  of  these  hills,  and  which  furnished,  in  the 
course  of  the  summer,  the  motive  for  transferring  the  seat 
of  the  infant  settlement.    This  shall  be  the  first  picture. 

The  second  shall  be  contemplated  from  the  same  spot — the 
heights  of  Charlestown — on  the  same  day,  the  eventful  seven- 
teenth of  June,  one  hundred  and  forty  years  later,  namely,  in 
the  year  1775.  A  terrific  scene  of  war  wages  on  the  top  of 
the  hill.  Wait  for  a  favorable  moment,  when  the  volumes  of 
fiery  smoke  roll  away,  and  over  the  masts  of  the  sixty-gun 
ship,  whose  batteries  are  blazing  upon  the  hill,  you  behold 
Mr.  Blackstone's  farm  changed  to  an  ill-built  town  of  about 
two  thousand  dwelling  houses,  mostly  of  wood;  with  scarce 
any  public  buildings,  but  eight  or  nine  churches,  the  old  State 
House  and  Faneuil  Hall ;  Roxbury  beyond,  an  insignificant 
village ;  a  vacant  marsh  in  all  the  space  now  occupied  by  Cam- 
bridgeport,  East  Cambridge,  Chelsea  and  East  Boston;  and  be- 
neath your  feet  the  town  of  Charlestown — consisting  in  the 
morning  of  a  line  of  about  three  hundred  houses,  wrapped  in 
a  sheet  of  flame  at  noon,  and  reduced  at  eventide  to  a  heap 
of  ashes. 

But  those  fires  are  kindled  upon  the  altar  of  liberty.  Ameri- 
can independence  is  established.  American  Commerce  smiles 
on  the  spot ;  and  now  from  the  top  of  one  of  Mr.  Blackstone  's 
hills,  a  stately  edifice  arises  which  seems  to  invite  us  as  to 
an  observatory.  As  we  look  down  from  this  lofty  structure, 
we  behold  the  third  picture — a  crowded,  busy  scene.  We  see 
beneath  us  a  city  containing  eighty  or  ninety  thousand  in- 
habitants, and  mainly  built  of  brick  and  granite.  Vessels  of 
every  description  are  moored  at  the  wharves. 

Notice  how  Everett  changed  his  point  of  view  from  the 
hill  at  Charlesto\^m  to   Boston   State   House,   when   he 


176  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

wished  to  get  a  nearer  view  of  the  streets  of  the  modern 
city.  Observe  how  he  made  his  picture  up  of  large 
masses  when  he  had  the  far  view.  Turn  back  to  page  158 
of  Lesson  9  to  note  how  Webster  went  into  very  full  and 
minute  details  when  he  described  the  battle  on  that  same 
hill.  His  is  a  near  point  of  view^n  the  midst  of  the 
fray. 

After  fixing  your  point  of  view,  have  the  details  scaled 
in  conformity  to  it. 

2.  Adapt  the  Details  to  iue  Particular  Audience. — 
Always  keep  your  whole  image  and  the  parts  which  go  to 
make  it  up  well  within  the  grasp  of  your  audience.  It 
would  be  altogether  unreasonable  to  expect  a  group  of 
untraveled  farmers  in  New  England  or  tbe  Middle  West 
to  realize  a  vision  of  the  great  Woolworth  Building  in 
New  York  City,  by  merely  saying,  "There  was  the  ma- 
jestic, wlute  building,  fifty  stories  high,  rising  above  the 
surrounding  structures."  The  past  experience  of  such 
men  furnishes  them  with  no  recollections  which  will  fill 
out  or  enable  them  to  appreciate  the  picture.  Such  an 
audience  must  be  approached  so  that  the  new  can  be 
placed  in  relation  to  the  old.  The  new  must  be  brought 
within  their  grasp.  Say  to  them,  "Think  of  your  town 
hall — a  fine  stone  building  four  stories  high.  Suppose 
that  you  were  standing  on  the  other  side  of  the  street 
looking  at  it.  Imagine  that  four  more  stories  are  added 
to  it  so  that  you  have  to  raise  your  eyes  more  to  see  the 
edge  of  the  roof.  Now  double  this  eight  story  building 
so  that  you  have  to  tilt  your  head  back  to  see  the  win- 
dows of  the  sixteenth  floor.  If  by  some  magic,  such  a 
building,  snow  white  and  capped  with  a  pyramid,  could 
shoot  up  to  yet  again  three  times  its  height,  so  that  you 
would  have  to  strain  far  back  to  get  a  glimpse  of  the 
sky  beyond  its  crest,  you  would  be  in  much  the  position 
of  one  who  views  the  Woolworth  Building  from  the  other 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  177 

side  of  the  street."  Further  impressive  and  important 
points  in  the  picture  could  be  made  clear  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  speaker  must  take  the  hints  whicii  are  in 
the  very  atmosphere  during  his  speech  and  must  use  his 
judgment  in  his  adaptation  to  a  particular  audience. 

3.  Order  of  Details. — The  rules  laid  down  in  the 
earlier  lessons  (see  particularly  Lesson  4)  concerning 
the  sequence  of  subdivisions  of  an  entire  speech  apply 
also  to  the  order  of  details  in  presenting  a  picture.  This 
is  true  for  descriptive  image  work  or  for  narratives. 
Just  as  a  general  plan  may  be  announced  for  a  speech, 
so  also  a  comprehensive  outline  of  a  picture  may  be  given 
to  promote  clearness.  Observe  once  more  how  "Webster, 
in  his  picture  of  the  Battle  of  Bunl^er  Hill  (Lesson  9, 
page  158),  gives  a  comprehensive  outline  after  he  estab- 
lishes his  viewpoint.  His  general  outline  makes  it  clear 
that  instead  of  painting  the  scene  as  it  now  is,  he  will 
present  it  as  it  was  then.    The  particulars  then  follow. 

In  narrative  work,  we  call  the  general  outline  by  an- 
other name — the  forecast  of  the  whole  plot.  To  fore- 
cast what  is  to  happen,  of  course,  promotes  clearness,  for 
the  audience  stands  ready  to  fit  each  detail  into  its  proper 
place  as  it  comes  along.  The  one  drawback  is  that  the 
possibility  of  excitement  and  surprise  is  likely  to  be  di- 
minished by  such  a  forecast. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  whole  speech,  the  details  of  a  par- 
ticular picture  must  be  arranged  according  to  an  orderly 
plan  based  on  considerations  such  as  time,  place,  magni- 
tude, or  cause  and  effect.  (For  a  simpler  explanation  of 
this,  refer  to  Lesson  5.) 

4.  Degree  of  Refinement.— 1%\^  is  a  consideration 
which  arises  especially  in  connection  with  the  details  of 
an  image.  It  embraces  all  those  things  which  a  speaker 
will  have  in  mind  when  he  decides  to  cease  giving  further 
details.    It  must  have  become  evident  to  the  student  by 


178  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

now  that  a  subdivision  of  a  whole  speech  will  itself  have 
further  subdivisions  or  details  of  its  o-^vn ;  while  these,  in 
turn,  may  have  more  minute  items  of  amplification,  and 
so  on  do^\^l  the  scale  until  individual  words  are  reached. 
The  practical  problem  is  to  determine  the  degree  of  this 
refinement.  Just  where  should  a  speaker  stop  and  re- 
frain from  giving  further  details?  The  general  rule 
should  be,  ''Stop  as  soon  as  further  particulars  will  dis- 
tract the  attention  from  the  whole  impression  you  wish 
to  leave." 

For  instance,  if  you  give  a  picture  such  as  Ingersoll's 
French  peasant  (Lesson  9,  page  162),  your  whole  pur- 
pose is  to  contrast  the  love  and  contentment  of  the 
French  peasant  with  the  restless  coldness  of  Napoleon's 
life.  Obviously,  certain  things  about  the  peasant  were 
better  unsaid,  for,  although  true,  they  would  take  the  at- 
tention from  the  essential  contrast.  You  omit,  therefore, 
a  description  of  the  features  of  a  particular  peasant's 
face,  his  likes  and  dislikes,  his  food,  and  the  cut  of  his 
jacket.  Your  purpose  is  to  make  a  certain  contrast,  and 
you  give  no  details  beyond  those  essential  to  that  aim. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  should  msh  to  make  a  hu- 
morous sketch  of  a  French  peasant,  you  would  create  fun 
by  going  into  all  the  minutiae  of  his  rustic  awkwardness. 
You  would  delineate  every  wrinkle  in  his  weather-beaten 
face,  every  trick  of  the  shrewd  eye,  every  act  at  the  table, 
even  down  to  the  skillful  use  of  the  knife  to  transfer 
mashed  potatoes  to  his  mouth  without  the  loss  of  blood. 

Experience  will  tell  when  not  to  amplify  further. 
Sometimes  a  boldly  sketched,  fleeting  image  is  all  that  is 
wanted  and  a  more  carefully  dra^\^l  picture  will  delay  or 
destroy  results.  The  ideal  is  to  stop  treating  an  image 
when  it  has  made  its  maximum  impression  for  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  used.     Further  time  on  it  has  the 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  179 

blurring  effect  of  over-exposure  to  a  photographic  plate. 
We  want  no  fogged  impressions. 

The  following  image  work  is  from  Beecher's  lecture  on 
Gambling  and  is  the  third  of  four  scenes  in  the  down- 
ward path  of  the  gambler.  Notice  how  the  point  of  view 
is  established  and  tlie  general  plan  is  sketched  in  the 
first  four  lines.  Then  observe  that  the  characters  at  the 
card  table  are  delineated  in  detail  sufficient  only  to  give 
the  impression  of  a  nondescript,  repulsive  group  in 
wretched  surroundings. 

Go  with  me  to  that  dilapidated  house  not  far  from  the  land- 
ing in  New  Orleans.  Look  into  the  dirty  room.  Around  a 
broken  table,  sitting  on  boxes,  kegs  and  rickety  chairs,  see  a 
filthy  crew  dealing  cards  smouched  with  tobacco,  grease  and 
liquor.  One  has  a  pirate  face,  burnished  and  burnt  with 
brandy;  a  shock  of  grizzly,  matted  hair,  half  covering  his  vil- 
lian  eyes,  which  glare  out  like  a  wild  beast's  from  a  thicket. 
Close  behind  him  wheezes  a  white-faced,  dropsical  wretch,  ver- 
min covered  and  stenchful.  A  scoundrel  Spaniard  and  a  burly 
negro  (the  jolliest  of  the  four)  complete  the  group.  They 
have  spectators,  drunken  sailors  and  oggling,  thieving,  drink- 
ing women,  who  should  have  died  long  ago  when  all  that  was 
womanly  died.  Here,  hour  draws  on  hour,  sometimes  with 
brutal  laughter,  sometimes  with  threat  and  oath  and  uproar. 
The  last  few,  stolen  dollars  lost,  the  temper  also — each  charges 
each  with  cheating.  High  words  ensue,  and  blows,  and  then 
the  whole  gang  burst  out  the  door,  beating,  biting,  scratching 
and  rolling  over  and  over  in  the  dirt  and  dust.  The  worst, 
the  fiercest  and  the  drunkenest  of  the  four  is  our  friend  who 
began  by  making  up  the  game. 

This  illustration  reminds  us  of  another  matter  related 
to  details.  When  you  wish  to  pause,  to  hold  up  the  move- 
ment, and  to  appreciate  some  scene  fully,  give  a  wealth 
of  minutisp;  but  if  you  wish  rapid  movement,  details 
must  be  suppressed.  To  accelerate  the  movement,  give 
fewer  and  fewer  details ;  secure  effects  by  broad  strokes 
and  make  a  bold  climax.  Observe  how  Beecher  pictured 
the  people  at  the  card  table  and  how  he  hastened  the 


180  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

movement  after  the  quarrel  began.  From  that  point  on 
he  ceased  to  consider  individuals  but,  with  a  few  quick 
flashes  or  impressions,  treated  them  all  as  a  mob. 

(c)    Images  by  Suggestion 

For  every  carefully  worked-out  image  in  a  public 
speech,  there  are  usually  about  ten  which  are  suggested 
by  single  words  or  by  brief  expressions  of  two  or  three 
words.  The  skillful  speaker  has  acquired  the  knack  of 
revealing  a  whole  picture  by  a  short  expression  hitting 
off  some  outstanding  feature.  Kead  the  following  para- 
graph from  James  G.  Blaine's  memorial  address  on  Gar- 
field. 

As  the  end  drew  near,  his  early  craving  for  the  sea  re- 
turned. The  stately  mansion  of  power  had  been  to  him  the 
wearisome  hospital  of  pain,  and  he  begged  to  be  taken  from 
its  prison-walls,  from  its  oppressive,  stifling  air,  from  its  home- 
lessness  and  its  hopelessness.  Gently,  silently,  the  love  of  a 
great  people  bore  the  pale  sufferer  to  the  longed-for  healing  of 
the  sea,  to  live  or  die  as  God  should  will,  within  sight  of  its 
heaving  billows,  within  sound  of  its  manifold  voices.  With 
wan,  fevered  face  tenderly  lifted  to  the  cooling  breeze,  he 
looked  out  wistfully  upon  the  ocean's  changing  wonders — on 
its  far  sails  whitening  in  the  morning  light;  on  its  restless 
waves  rolling  shoreward  to  break  and  die  beneath  the  noon- 
day sun ;  on  the  red  clouds  of  evening  arching  low  to  the  hori- 
zon; on  the  serene  and  shining  pathway  of  the  stars.  Let  us 
think  that  his  dying  eyes  read  a  mystic  meaning  which  only  the 
rapt  and  parting  soul  may  know.  Let  us  believe  that  in  the 
silence  of  the  receding  world  he  heard  the  great  waves  break- 
ing on  a  farther  shore,  and  felt  already  upon  his  wasted  brow 
the  breath  of  the  eternal  morning. 

Here  Ave  see  a  whole  series  of  pictures,  each  suggested 
just  by  a  touch.  Notice  especially  the  effect  of  *'on  its 
far  sails  whitening  in  the  morning  light."  Does  not  the 
complete  picture  arise  as  clearly  as  it  would  had  the  ora- 
tor carefully  outlined  the  whole  and  filled  in  the  details? 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  181 

While  speaking  of  the  Union  soldiers  in  his  Reunion 
Speech  at  Indianapolis,  Robert  G.  Ingersoll  said :  ''We 
stand  guard  with  them  in  the  wild  storm  and  under  the 
quiet  stars."  Does  not  a  picture  of  the  sentry,  out  be- 
yond the  lines,  with  the  starry  sky  above  him,  come  fully 
to  mind — invoked  by  a  word  ? 

(d)    Practice  in  Suggestive  Use  of  Words 

How  shall  the  student  acquire  skill  in  using  words  ef- 
fectively and  economically?  By  first  trying  to  grasp  the 
most  essential  part  of  a  scene  or  situation  and  then  usin.u 
the  word  which  designates  that  very  characteristic  part. 
For  instance,  the  striking  thing  about  a  sailboat  on  the 
horizon  is  the  white  flash  of  the  sail  as  it  swings  around 
and  catches  the  full  beam  of  the  sun.  The  most  serene 
and  quieting  thing  at  night,  when  one  is  alone,  is  the 
glittering  star.  The  effective  use  of  words  to  give  whole 
pictures  arises  when  one  sees  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
picture  and  reveals  that  only.  That  essential  part  car- 
ries all  the  rest  with  it  to  the  audience. 

Let  the  student  tell  the  essential  thing,  physical  or 
spiritual,  in  the  following : 

1.  Cattle  at  noon  under  the  trees. 

2.  A  dreadnaught  battleship   coming   head   on   at 

full  speed. 

3.  A  fast  torpedo  boat  in  the  same  action. 

4.  A  workman  entering  the  room  to  tell  his  wife 

that  he  has  been  laid  off. 

5.  The  sea  on  a  clear  night  under  a  full  moon. 

6.  A  lake  or  river  under  the  same  circumstances. 

7.  A  laborer  opening  a  great   furnace   door   in   a 

steel  mill  to  rake  the  coals. 

8.  A  man  whom  you  admire,  in  a  characteristic 

attitude. 


182  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

9.-    The  same  for  a  man  against  whom  you  have  a 
justifiable  aversion. 
10.     A  drunkard  staggering  along  the  street. 

The  student  should  have  a  notebook  in  which  to  make 
studies  suggested  by  these  exercises.  Whenever  a  good 
or  interesting  thing  is  met  "hit  it  off"  in  the  most  con- 
cise Avay  possible.  Then  also  work  out  the  detailed  and 
thoroughly  planned  description  or  narrative.  Whenever 
you  get  a  very  apt  expression  in  your  reading,  make  a 
note  of  it. 

There  are  those  who  recommend  that  the  student  of 
speaking  have  many  such  pet  expressions  memorized 
and  ready  to  draw  upon  when  getting  up  a  speech  of  his 
own.  The  keeping  of  a  notebook,  however,  is  not  val- 
uable so  much  for  this  reason,  but  rather  because  the 
process  of  culling  out  effective  expressions  and  of  record- 
ing these,  as  well  as  original  ones,  will  tend  to  develop 
observation  and  expression.  What  we  want  to  cultivate 
in  the  speaker  is  the  keen  eye  and  the  ready  tongue  which 
will  work  together  extemporaneously.  If,  however,  you 
find  that  the  store  of  "canned"  gems  is  of  real  help,  it 
would  be  foolish  to  set  it  aside.  On  the  other  hand,  do 
not  use  it  to  the  exclusion  of  extemporaneous  expression. 

2.      VOCABULAEY-BUILDING 

The  expression  of  images  and  especially  the  sketchy 
use  of  one  or  two  words  to  suggest  a  whole  scene  implies 
a  mastery  of  words.  We  shall  consider,  in  the  rest  of 
this  lesson,  the  general  principles  of  vocabulary-build- 
ing. The  next  lesson  will  be  devoted  entirely  to  a  system 
of  word-analysis  and  synthesis. 

As  would  naturally  be  expected,  writers  from  the 
earliest  times  have  pointed  out  the  need  of  a  large  vo- 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  18;j 

cabulary  for  the  speaker.  Quintilian,  the  great  Roman 
rhetorician,  gives  over  the  first  chapter  of  his  tenth  book 
to  this  subject,  under  the  title  De  Copia  Verhorum  {On 
the  Supply  of  Words).  In  stating  the  ideal  to  be  at- 
tained here,  we  may  say  that  three  things  should  char- 
acterize the  vocabulary  of  a  successful  speaker :  (1)  It 
should  be  large;  (2)  it  should  be  accurate;  and  (3)  it 
should  be  readily  accessible.  This  last  characteristic  is 
more  essential  to  the  speaker  than  to  the  writer.  The 
other  two  hold  for  the  essayist  as  well  as  for  the  orator. 

(a)    Enlarging  the  Vocabulary 

Nature  provides  that  as  a  child  matures,  he  shall  fix 
to  the  various  experiences  in  life  the  words  which  those 
around  him  usually  employ  to  represent  those  experi- 
ences. As  the  mother  comes  near  the  infant,  she  con- 
stantly refers  to  herself  as  ' '  mother  "  or  ' '  mamma. ' '  At 
last,  the  child  associates  the  two  and  the  word  will  re- 
call the  person  to  his  mind,  or  the  presence  or  recollec- 
tion of  the  mother  will  prompt  the  use  of  the  word. 

So  on  through  life;  wider  knowledge  brings  mth  it 
wider  language  for  expressional  purposes.  There  is  no 
other  way  to  enlarge  the  vocabulary.  To  be  sure,  by  a 
sheer  feat  of  the  memory  one  might  acquire  a  parrot 
control  over  a  great  list  of  words,  but  they  will  have  no 
expressional  value  unless  they  come  with  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  things  for  which  they  stand.  Conse- 
quently, we  would  advise  that  the  student  study  not  only 
the  word  but  also  the  thing.  If  you  hear  or  come  across 
a  strange  word,  look  it  up  not  only  in  the  dictionary  but 
also  in  the  encyclopaedia,  Establisli  a  memory  of  the 
word  itself  and  also  a  trustworthy  knowledge  of  the 
thing  it  expresses.    The  word  then  becomes  alive;  it  is 


184  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

not  a  dead  and  empty  shell,    increase  your  stock  of  live 

WORDS. 

The  second  care  of  the  speaker  is  to  observe  carefully 
the  context  in  which  his  words  are  met.  A  word  used  in 
one  group  may  be  different  in  meaning  from  the  same 
word  used  in  another  connection.  Furthermore,  two 
words  may  have  almost  the  same  meaning — they  may  be 
almost  synonymous,  but  a  certain  context  may  call  for 
one  of  them  and  make  the  use  of  the  other  incorrect. 
Consequently,  one  who  would  acquire  a  just  sense  of  the 
meaning  of  words  should  read  widely  and  hear  many  ex- 
cellent speeches.  The  only  way  to  appreciate  the  exact 
shades  of  meaning  connected  with  a  given  word  is  to  hear 
it  used  in  a  general  setting  and  to  hear  it  often.  To  illus- 
^'trate  how  one  context  calls  for  one  word  and  another  for 
\  a  different  word,  we  can  tell  the  old  story  about  surprise 
)  and  astonish.  It  is  said  that  on  coming  do\\Ti  stairs  un- 
expectedly one  day,  Noah  Webster's  wife  caught  him 
when  about  to  kiss  the  maid.  "AVhy,  Noah,"  she  ex- 
claimed, ''I'm  surprised!"  He  replied,  ''You  are  mis- 
taken, my  dear,  it  is  I  who  am  surprised ;  you  are  aston- 
ished." 

Take  the  word  liable.  Many  people  use  it  interchange- 
ably with  apt  or  likely.  Even  Dr.  Buckley,  in  his  Ex- 
temporaneous Oratory,  in  the  chapter  on  "Words 
and  Their  Proper  Use,"  says:  "A  vocabulary  of  a 
thousand  words,  correctly  understood,  is  preferable  to 
one  of  five  thousand,  even  though  four-fifths  of  them  are 
properly  used,  if  a  part  be  misconceived.  Many  have  no 
power  of  intelligent  selection,  frequently  using  words 
correctly,  and  by  means  of  them  truly  expressing  thv^ir 
thoughts  and  feelings ;  but  having  grasped  many  words 
incorrectly,  they  are  liable  at  any  moment  to  fall  into  er- 
ror." His  thought  here  is  commendable,  but  not  his  use 
of  the  word  liable  to  mean  apt,  prone,  or  likely.     The 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  185 

word  properly  means  open  to  responsibility  or  subject 
to.  Tims,  in  context  we  should  find:  "If  your  factory 
is  not  in  sanitary  condition,  you  are  liable  to  prosecution 
and  fine"  or  ''I  hold  you  liable  for  this  debt." 

These  two  illustrations  will  indicate  the  value  of  con- 
text in  fixing  meaning.  It  is  not  safe  merely  to  consult  a 
dictionary.  Some  of  the  larger  dictionaries  are  fairly 
good,  for  they  give  the  usual  definitions  and  synonyms 
and  also  a  few  illustrations  to  show  the  w^ord  in  context. 
They  are  desirable  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  meet  our 
needs,  but  the  smaller  dictionaries,  which  give  defini- 
tions only,  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  much  help.  If 
the  student  wishes  to  see  the  relation  of  the  illustrations 
to  the  definitions,  let  him  look  up  the  words  restive  and 
transpire  and  then  determine  the  exact  meaning  of  the 
following  expressions:  ''There  was  the  restive  steed" 
and  "After  these  things  transpired,  his  conduct 
changed." 

To  supplement  the  observation  of  words  in  connection 
with  real  experience  or  in  connection  with  the  context  of 
other  speakers  and  writers,  the  student  may  take  up  a 
systematic  study  of  word  lists,  sjmomans,  antonyms,  and 
dictionaries.  This  is  reversing  the  process  from  natural 
use  to  word-study  by  making  word-study  precede  use  in 
communication.  In  the  next  lesson  we  shall  outline  a 
scientific  method  of  word-study.  Now,  however,  we  shall 
assume  that  the  words  are  first  met  in  (1)  conversation, 
(2)  public  address,  or  (3)  reading,  and  that  you  expect 
to  use  the  dictionary  as  a  check  only.  The  following  is  a 
good  daily  program. 

{b)     Vocabulary -Building  from  Context 

1.  Set  aside  a  portion  of  the  day  or  evening  for  good, 
systematic  reading.    We  may  suggest  the  best  way  to  be- 


186  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

gin  the  best  kinds  of  reading.  We  do  not  expect  the 
student  to  read  all  the  following  books,  but  we  strongly 
urge  him  to  begin  with  those  listed  first.  They  are  easy 
and  very  interesting. 

(a)  Biography:  Begin  with  Benjamin  Franklin's 
Autobiography  and  the  Life  of  Benvenuto  Cellini  (a  most 
absorbing  narrative,  translated  into  English  by  Sy- 
monds).  These  will  interest  you  in  biography.  Then 
read  Carl  Schurz's  Life  of  Henry  Clay,  Boswell's  John- 
son, and  the  lives  of  other  men  in  fields  of  work  in  which 
you  are  interested. 

(b)  Good  Oratory:  The  order  of  interest  is  Robert 
Ingersoll,  Wendell  Phillips,  Webster,  Burke,  and  others. 
Webster  uses  words  most  carefully  and  so  does  Burke, 
but  they  are  apt  to  be  a  bit  ponderous  at  times.  Inger- 
soll and  Phillips  are  both  good  and  interesting.  There 
are  many  satisfactory  collections  of  orations  which  may 
be  read  for  choice  extracts  from  these  and  other  orators. 

(c)  Good  Fiction:  For  interest  in  excellent  writing, 
begin  with  Hawthorne's  Scarlet  Letter.  Follow  it  with 
Edgar  Allen  Poe's  Short  Stories  and  the  works  of  Rob- 
ert Louis  Stevenson,  Kipling,  Dickens,  Thackeray,  and 
George  Eliot. 

(d)  Plays:  Begin  to  read  George  Bernard  Shaw's 
The  Doctor's  Dilemma,  Getting  Married,  and  Fanny's 
First  Play.  Then  read  his  plays  Pleasant  and  Unpleas- 
ant. J.  M.  Barrie  {Peter  Pan)  and  Maeterlink  {The  Blue 
Bird)  and  other  modern  dramatists  may  interest  you  and 
prepare  you  for  an  appreciation  of  Ibsen  {The  Doll's 
House,  The  Master  Builder,  Pillars  of'  Society,  and 
Hedda  Gabler).  These  should  be  read  before  the  plays 
of  Shakespeare.  Of  course,  everyone  should  read  these 
last  eventually. 

(e)  Poetry:  The  following  sequence  is  recommended 
for  those  who  do  not  already  care  for  poetry  but  who 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  187 

wish  to  have  a  taste  for  it  developed:  Scott  {The  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  Marmion,  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel) ; 
Coleridge  {The  Ancient  Mariner) ;  AVilde  {The  Ballad  of 
Reading  Gaol) ;  Poe  {The  Raven  and  Annabel  Lee) ; 
Longfellow  {Evangeline) ;  Tennyson  {Enoch  Arden,  The 
Round  Table  Poems,  Break,  Break,  Break,  and  In  Memo- 
riani).  Then  may  follow  readings  in  Palgrave's  Golden 
Treasury  of  English  Verse,  selecting  Browning,  Shelley, 
and  Keats.  When  the  student  loves  Shelley,  he  loves 
poetry. 

2.  During  this  reading  and  during  all  other  incidental 
reading,  such  as  the  daily  perusal  of  the  newspapers  and 
magazines,  make  a  note  of  new  words  in  a  little  book. 
Also,  copy  longer  expressions  which  are  either  new  or 
especially  effective.  Be  sure  to  master  the  context  in 
every  case- 

3.  ^  Note  in  a  similar  manner  new  or  excellent  expres- 
sions heard  in  conversation  or  while  list^.'ning  to  public 
addresses. 

4.  Consult  the  dictionary  and  check  up  the  meaning  of 
all  these  words. 

5.  Put  them  to  the  test  of  comparison  and  contrast. 
The  method  is  as  follows :  Write  down  the  word  in  ques- 
tion and  then  write  as  many  words  as  you  know  which 
stand  for  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  idea  (synonjans) ; 
next,  add  all  you  know  which  are  of  opposite  meaning 
(antonyms).  After  that,  indicate  fine  distinctions.  The 
exercise  about  to  be  given  is  a  very  complete  treatment 
of  the  word  discord.  We  do  not  expect  a  student  to  do  so 
well.  If  he  has  two  "like"  words  and  two  "opposite" 
words  and  one  "distinction,"  he  has  enough  for  a  be- 
ginner. 

A  good  book  to  consult  in  connection  with  this  exercise 
"is  Roget's  Thesaurus,  a  Treasury  of  the  English  Words. 


188 


EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Word 


Like 


Opposite 


Distinction 


Discord 


Jarring  note, 
trouble,  disagree- 
ment, dissension, 
cross- purpose, 
breach,  wrangling, 
row,  rumpus,  Don- 
nybrook  Fair 


Concord,  h  a  r  - 
mony,  sympathy, 
agreement,  peace, 
reciprocity,  concili- 
ation 


We  speak  of  discord 
when  a  slight  lack  of 
harmony  exists;  but 
breach  indicates  a 
more  serious  separa- 
tion of  interests.  We 
have  concord  when  all 
work  well  together; 
concihation  exists  if 
that  harmony  was  pre- 
ceded by  dissension. 
Concihation  also  im- 
pUes  that  the  parties 
involved  have  secured 
the  harmony  by  mu- 
tual concessions 


6.  As  words  are  mastered,  put  them  into  actual  oral 
and  written  use. 

7.  Practice  the  following  substitution-of-missing-ex- 
pression  exercises: 

(a)  Take  a  magazine  article  or  other  piece  of  compo- 
sition which  you  are  willing  to  mutilate,  and  strike  out 
certain  words  and  phrases.  Note  how  it  is  done  in  the 
following  passage  from  an  address  on  "Jesus  as  a  Pub- 
lic Speaker," 

Now,  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the  greatest  name  in  history. 
He  has  wielded  an  influence  greater  than  any  king,  ppinoo 
or  wappiop.    Was  He  an  orator  ? 

One  of  the  first  roquiaitoo-  of  the  orator  is  that  he  be  a 
well-informed  popoon.  He  must  know  muoh  of  many  thingo. 
Particularly  is  it  doairablo  that  he  know  and  love  *%otm'<»r  or, 
at  least,  have  muoh  of  the  po  tic  tompopamont.  Moreover, 
he  must  be  a  lioot>  student  of  liiman  nature.  Do  the  Gospels 
ascribe  any  or  all  of  these  attributes  to  Jesus?  So  precocious 
was  He  that  at  the  age  of  twelve  He  astonished  the  dootoru' 
of  the  temple.     His  uttei-ances  at  thirty,    when    He    met    in 


t 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABULARY-BUILDING  189 

keen  nrgumont-  priest,  scribe,  pharisee  and  lawyer,  show  Him 
to  have  been  master  of  the  law.  Can  there  be  any  doubt  of 
Ilis  knowledge  of  and  lovo  for  nature ?  "I  am  the  vine ;  ye 
are  the  branches."  **A  soAver  went  forth  to  sow."  ''Do  men 
gather  grapes  of  thorns  or  figs  or  thistles?"  "Behold  the 
fowlci  of  the  air,  for  they  sow  not,  neither  do  they  reap,  nor 
gather  into  bapno;  yet  your  heavenly  f::tihoi'  feedeth  them." 
' '  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow ;  they  toil  not 
neither  do  they  spin;  and  yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  even 
Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these. 
Wherefore,  if  God  so  clothe  the  grass  of  the  field,  w^hich 
today  is,  and  tomorrow  is  cast  into  the  oven,  shall  He  not 
much  more  clothe  you,  0  ye  of  little  faith  ? ' ' 

Of  course,  you  must  obliterate  the  deleted  expressions 
completely.  Set  aside  a  number  of  such  prepared  pas- 
sages until  you  have  forgotten  the  words  you  crossed  out. 
Then  take  the  sheet  and  read  it  through  smoothly,  sup- 
plying at  each  gap,  without  hesitancy,  an  expression 
which  will  be  appropriate.  You  have  tlie  general  pur- 
pose and  aim  of  the  passage  to  guide  you,  but  you  must 
supply,  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  a  word  which  will 
continue  the  sense. 

This  is  an  exercise  in  adaptation  and  application  but 
not  one  in  acquisition.  It  is  very  valuable,  for  it  dupli- 
cates almost  exactly  the  situation  in  which  a  speaker 
finds  himself  when  he  tries  to  express,  in  an  extempora- 
neous manner,  a  thought  which  he  understands  and  has 
fully  in  mind.    He  must  find  adequate  words  promptly. 

(b)  Next  make  a  list  of  words  on  which  you  wish  to 
practice.  Then,  in  a  rapid  and  extemporaneous  manner 
supply  a  number  of  s\Tionyms  and  antonyms ;  draw  dis- 
tinctions. It  is  the  rapid  and  oral  carrying-out  of  what 
was  suggested  on  page  187  as  a  written  means  of  acquisi- 


190  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

tion.    The  following  is  a  typical  list  with  the  first  word 
treated  in  the  desired  manner. 

1.  Relation,  Relation  is  similar  to  con- 
nection, the  opposite  of  dissociation  or  differ- 
ence; we  may  say  that  relation  exists  without 
implying  that  there  is  harmony,  for  harmony 
is  only  one  kind  of  relation  possible  between 
two  or  more  things. 

2.  Symmetry 

3.  Domain 

4.  Regularity 

5.  Individuality 

6.  Eternity 

7.  Intelligence 

8.  Safety 

9.  Defiance 
10.     Amusement. 

Take  such  a  list  and  go  through  it  rapidly.  If  you  have 
to  pause  and  cannot  promptly  add  the  required  amplifica- 
tion, check  the  word  and  move  immediately  to  the  next 
one.  There  must  be  no  stop.  After  you  are  through  go 
back  and  make  a  careful  study  of  the  words  you  had  to 
check.  Then  add  them  to  a  new  list  to  be  used  for  exer- 
cise at  some  other  time.  After  a  while,  you  will  have 
compiled  a  great  many  lists  and  have  a  considerable  ad- 
dition to  your  readily  accessible  vocabulary. 

Thus,  we  have  outlined  the  manner  in  which  to  make 
all  words  with  which  you  come  in  contact  as  living  parts 
of  expression,  a  part  of  your  own  vocabulary.  We  have 
outlined  the  way  to  check  up  their  meaning,  to  study 
them,  and  to  exercise  with  them  in  actual  application. 

In  the  next  lesson,  we  shall  consider  word-building  so 
as  to  indicate  how  the  mastery  of  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  root  words  and  parts  of  words  will  give  you 
command  over  a  much  vaster  vocabularv. 


IMAGES  AND  VOCABITLARY-BUTLDTNG  191 


Assignment  of  Work 

The  written  exorcises  in  tliis  entire  lesson  shonld  bo 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  your  notebook. 

First  Day. — Copy  from  some  oration  or  writing  a  description 
which  you  consider  very  good.  Then  make  an  analysis  of 
it,  covering  the  following  points : 

1.  Topic 

2.  Point  of  view 

3.  Comprehensive  outline 

4.  Plan  or  basis  of  ordering  details 

5.  Use  of  words 

Second  Day. — Make  a  similar  study  of  a  good  piece  of  narra- 
tive work. 

Third  Day. — Write  out  an  original  piece  of  description  or  nar- 
ration, following  an  outline  covering  these  points,  and  at- 
taching the  outline  to  your  work. 

Fourth  Day. — Make  an  outline  of  this  character  for  five  or  six 
images  and  develop  them  extemporaneously.  This  is  a  most 
important  exercise. 

Fifth  Day. — Prepare  a  list  of  fifty  short  expressions  which  are 
good  and  expressive  by  suggestion.  Add  twenty-five  of 
your  own. 


Additional  Reminders 


1.     Is  your  posture  good? 


Are  you  improving  in  breath  capacity  and  control? 

3.  Are  you  carefully  criticizing  your  own  organization  of 
thought  in  your  conversations  and  public  addresses? 

4.  Are  you  systematically  criticizing  others? 

5.  Have  you  found  any  one-sided  development  in  your 
perception  and  memory,  that  is,  are  you  distinctly  eye-minded 
or  ear-minded  or  motor-minded?     What  are  you  doing  about  it? 

6.  Be  sure  to  work  steadily  to  increase  your  vocabulary. 


hi 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  tlie  stiulont  tn  ust"  in  testing 
iiis  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  tliis  lesson.  They 
are  sugfiestiue  merely,  dealing  largely  witli  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  he  placed  in  the 
notebook    for   futnie   reference. 

1.  Does  your  own  life  show  that  there  is  a  close  relation  be- 
tween actual  experience  and  imagination;  Along  what  lii;,^ 
does  your  imagination  work? 

2.  Why  are  self-made  men  very  often  successful  business 
executives,  promoters,  and  advertisers? 

3.  What  man  of  your  acquaintance  has  the  best  reproduc- 
ing imagination?  Who  the  best  creative  imagination?  Who 
the  best  fancy?  Has  the  mental  characteristic  of  each  any 
connection  with  the  work  in  which  he  is  engaged? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  adaptation  to  the  audience?  Did  you 
ever  see  a  speaker  fail  because  of  weakness  in  this  respect? 

5.  Have  you  ever  heard  a  man  spoil  a  description  oi"  nar- 
rative because  of  unorganized  or  poorly  ordered  details? 

G.  What  is  the  effect  upon  an  audience  of  over-refinement 
and  too  much  detail? 

7.  Will  you  not  add  to  the  list  of  subjects  for  word-paint- 
ing on  page  181  to  be  expressed  by  a  few  suggestive  words? 
What  kind  of  images  comes  most  readily  to  your  mind? 

8.  What  are  the  natural  principles  governing  the  enlarge- 
ment of  a  vocabulary? 

9.  What  do  we  mean  by  "increasing  the  stock  of  live 
words ' '  ? 

10.  Why  is  context  of  great  importance? 

11.  Which  of  your  favorite  authors  has  the  largest  vocabii- 
lary?    Which  one  uses  his  words  most  accurately? 

12.  Could  you  improve  upon  our  plan  of  vocabuhrry-build- 
ing?  How?  Can  you  suggest  other  interesting  and  effective 
devices  to  fix  the  words  and  to  give  rapid  command  in  speech  ? 

192 


LESSON  11 
vocabulary-building 

1.     Word  Analysis 

In  the  last  lesson,  we  gave  exercises  designed  to  culti- 
vate  in  the  student  exactness  in  the  use  of  each  word 
added  to  his  vocabulary.  Exercises  to  insure  facility  or 
prompt  selection  of  the  proper  word  at  a  given  place 
were  also  outlined.  Finally,  both  precision  and  prompt- 
ness were  re-enforced  by  practice  on  synonyms  and  an- 
ton^ans.  If  a  student  were  to  read  a  great  deal,  note  each 
new  expression,  find  all  its  synon3ans  and  antonjans,  and 
then  practice  with  his  enlarged  vocabulary  after  the  man- 
ner suggested  in  Lesson  10,  he  would  soon  have  easy 
command  of  wide  language  resources.  But  there  is  an- 
other way  to  supplement  the  process  as  described  so  that 
still  greater  returns  may  be  reaped  from  a  given  amount 
of  effort.  Such  a  further  study — Avord  analysis,  as  we 
shall  call  it — we  shall  take  up  in  this  lesson.  If  one  can 
analyze  properly  a  given  number  of  words  over  which 
he  has  complete  command,  he  will  thereby  be  given  in- 
sight into  the  meaning  of  two  or  three  times  as  many 
more.  Furthermore,  word  analysis  will  make  the  con- 
sultation of  the  dictionary  a  real  pleasure  and  that  dry 
book  will  become  attractive. 

No  doubt  every  student  has  noticed  that  certain  of  our 
words  are  similar  in  some  of  their  parts;  for  instance, 
toiQgrapli,  ])h.oj\o graph,  hiography,  umltigrapli,  litho- 
graph,  grapliiiQ,  and  others  have  the  common  part, 
-graph.    This  common  element,  of  course,  has  a  meaning 

193 


194  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

which  helps  to  make  up  the  total  meaning  of  each  word  in 
which  it  occurs.  It  is  from  the  Greek  word  grapho  (I 
write).  It  is  used  w^ith  other  significant  parts  to  make  up 
the  meaning  of  the  words  mentioned  above. 

1.  Telegraph  (to  write  from  a  distance),  from  two  Greek  words, 

tele  (far  or  distant)  and  grapJio  (I  write).  When  a  tele- 
graph was  first  invented,  it  actually  did  write  on  a  travel- 
ing strip  of  paper  and  the  operator  did  not  have  to  de- 
pend on  sound  as  now. 

2.  PlionograpJi  (a  recorder  or  writer  of  sounds),  from  pJione 

(sound)  and  grapJio  (I  write). 

3.  Biography    (a  record  or  history  of  someone's  life),   from 

bios  (life)  and  grapho  (I  write). 

4.  Multigraph   (a  machine  to  write  many  copies),   from  the 

Latin  word  multi  (many)  and  grapho  (I  write). 

5.  Lithograph  (a  print  from  a  stone  plate),  from  lithos  (stone) 

and  grapho  (I  write).  Many  of  our  color  pictures  are 
lithographs. 

6.  Graphite  (a  material  with  which  we  may  record  or  write), 

from  grapho  (I  write)  and  -ite  (of  the  nature  of). 

By  studying  the  first  and  second  words  above  (tele- 
graph and  phonograph),  we  see  why  a  far-speaking  or 
far-sounding  apparatus  came  to  be  called  a  "telephone." 
This  and  many  similar  words  bear  evidence  that  the  thor- 
ough analysis  of  a  comparatively  small  vocabulary  leads 
the  way  to  the  grasp  of  a  far  larger  stock  of  words.  Just 
as  we  have  made  use  of  the  graph-gvoui),  so  also  we  might 
take  the  ^e/e-group  and  study  the  structure  of  ^e/ephone, 
^e^egraph,  ^e^epathy  (mental  influence  from  a  distance), 
^eZegraphone,  ^e^epost,  and  many  others  which  the  stu- 
dent, from  this  hint,  may  be  able  to  look  up  in  the  dic- 
tionary for  himself.  In  this  lesson  we  shall  list  the  most 
serviceable  of  the  word  parts  which  occur  often  in  the 
building-up  of  larger  words. 

Words  like  tele  and  grapho  are  called  "root  words." 
In  word-building,  we  use  not  only  certain  fundamental 
roots,  but  also  prefixes  and  suffixes.    A  prefix  is  a  part 


VOCABULARY-BUILDING  195 

of  a  word  which  is  put  in  front  of  a  root  word  to  make  up 
a  larger,  new  word.  A  suffix  is  added  after  the  root  word 
for  a  similar  reason.  Thus,  to  the  root  change  we  prefix 
inter-  and  get  interchange.  Inter-  means  * 'between"  or 
"among."  When  I  say,  "I  can  change  this  article, "  I 
mean  that  for  the  article  I  may  get  another — no  matter 
what;  hut  if  I  say,  "I  can  interchange  these  things,"  I 
mean  that  the  change  must  be  within  a  definite  group  and 
the  substitution  of  one  for  the  other  must  be  among  the 
members  of  the  group.  The  suffix  -able  has  an  obvious 
meaning.  Therefore,  interchangeable  means  ''able  to  be 
changed  within  a  given  set  or  number. ' '  Here  we  have 
a  root,  a  prefix,  and  a  suffix.  In  analyzing  words  we  look 
for  (1)  roots,  (2)  prefixes,  and  (3)  suffixes.  A  mastery 
of  a  relatively  small  number  of  these  parts  will  give 
command  over  a  large  vocabulary. 

2.     Sources  of  English  Words 

Before  listing  certain  serviceable  roots,  prefixes,  and 
suffixes,  it  may  be  well  to  mention  briefly  the  way  in 
which  the  present  English  vocabulary  was  built  up.  It  is 
generally  known  that  modern  English  is  a  composite  of 
many  languages.  Some  of  our  words  are  of  Greek  origin, 
some  come  from  the  Latin,  some  are  of  Germanic  origin, 
and  others  are  from  still  other  sources  or  are  directly 
borrowed  from  modern  foreign  languages.  An  example 
of  this  last  group  is  chic  (pronounced  "  sheek"),  a  French 
word  used  to  mean  "stylish,"  "pert,"  or  "attractively 
lively."  Understanding  that  there  are  many  sources  of 
vocabulary,  we  must  nevertheless  recognize  three  great 
well-springs  of  modern  English:  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Anglo-Saxon. 

In  very  ancient  times,  a  barbaric  people  lived  in  Eng- 
land.   They  spoke  a  Celtic  language.    But  these  people 


196  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

were  conquered  and  pushed  back  into  AVales,  Scotland, 
aiid  Ireland  by  invaders  from  Scandinavia  and  Germany. 
The  conquerors  may  be  considered  the  founders  of  our 
language  as  we  now  have  it.  Though  the  old  Celtic  sur- 
vives to  a  certain  extent  in  parts  of  Scotland,  Wales,  Ire- 
land, and  Brittany,  modern  English  has  only  a  few  of  its 
words.  They  are  mostly  the  names  of  persons  and  places, 
such  as  Cohb,  Jones,  Thames,  and  Kent.  Of  the  common 
names,  the  most  important  are  darn,  flannel,  tartan, 
plaid,  gruel,  and  brand. 

The  incoming  Anglo-Saxon  language  became  the  back- 
bone of  Old  English  and  later  modern  English.  We  need 
not  go  into  the  grannnatical  form  of  this  language  and  its 
various  changes.  AVe  are  concerned  mostly  with  its 
words  and  their  structure.  They  are  simple,  direct,  and 
forceful,  usually  representing  concrete  images  and 
strong  emotions  rather  than  generalizations  and  intel- 
lectual refinements.  Thus  we  find  most  of  the  natural  phe- 
nomena and  objects  in  this  tongue:  hill,  dale;  sea,  land; 
ivood,  ivater,  stream;  heat,  cold;  rain,  hail,  sleet,  thunder; 
sun,  moon,  stars;  earth,  fire;  spring,  winter,  summer; 
morning ^  noon,  and  night.  Family  life  is  also  cared  for: 
father,  mother,  husband,  tvife,  ividow,  son,  daughter, 
child,  brother,  sister,  home,  roof,  fireside,  hearth,  etc. 
The  following  are  typical  words  expressing  strong  emo- 
tions: love  with  its  smile,  anger  and  frown,  shame  and 
blush,  guilt  and  gloom,  sorroiv  and  tears.  This  strong, 
concrete  language,  drawing  something  from  the  Celtic, 
became  the  language  of  England  until  the  Norman  inva- 
sion in  1066. 

It  was  through  the  Norman  French  tliat  classical 
(Latin  and  Greek)  words  were  introduced.  The  Nor- 
mans, under  William  the  Conqueror,  set  about  to  replace 
the  English  tongue  witli  their  own  language.  But  they 
were  by  no  means  successful.    The  two  peoples  mingled 


VOCABULARY-BUILDING  197 

and  the  language  which  emerged  in  Shakespeare's  time 
and  continues  to  the  present  was  more  Saxon  in  gram- 
matical structure  than  Norman.  But  the  Norman  words, 
of  Latin  and  Greek  origin,  were  added  to  the  vocabulary. 
As  a  result,  we  now  look  for  Saxon,  Latin,  and  Greek 
prefixes,  roots,  and  suffixes  when  we  analyze  most  of  the 
words  now  in  use. 

(a)     Latin  Prefixes 

For  convenience,  we  shall  begin  with  Latin  prefixes 
and  treat  some  of  them  in  pairs. 

A-,  ah-,  or  abs-,  and  ad-. — The  prefix  a-,  ah-,  or  ahs- 
means  ''away"  or  "from."  Thus  abjure  comes  from  ah- 
(away)  and  jiiro  (I  swear)  and  means  ''to  swear  away" 
or  "to  forswear  something  previously  acknowledged." 
Abject  comes  from  ah-  and  jectus  (thrown)  and  therefore 
means  "throwm  away"  or  "worthless" — carrying  with  it 
the  notion  of  "abased,"  "cast  off,"  or  "hopelessly  low." 

Look  up  the  following  words:  avert,  abhor,  abduct,  abnormal, 
aboriginal,  abrupt,  abstain,  abscond,  abrogate.  To  these  add  others 
which  may  occur  to  you  or  which  you  may  look  up  in  the  dictionary. 

Ad-  means  just  the  opposite,  that  is,  "to,"  "at," 
"toward,"  or  "for."  Admire  comes  from  ad-  (at)  and 
miror  (I  wonder).  Adore  is  from  ad-  and  oro  (I  pray  or 
speak)  and  therefore  means  "to  pray  to"  or  "to  wor- 
ship." An  advocate  is  one  who  calls  out  for  {voco,  I  call) 
or  speaks  for  a  cause. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  advent,  admission,  address,  adept, 
adhere,  adjourn,  adjust,  administer,  admit,  adopt. 

Sometimes  the  d  in  ad-  is  left  out  or  assimilated  to  the 
following  letter,  and  we  find  aspire,  ascribe,  avow,  accept, 
affi<jo,  annul,  and  attract. 

Ante-  and  post-. — Ante-  means  "before"  and  post- 
means  "after."    Thus  we  have  antehellinn  and  postbel- 


198  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

lum — "before  the  war"  and  "after  the  war."  (Inciden- 
tally helium  is  a  root  from  the  Latin  and  means  "war"; 
we  see  it  in  rebellious,  bellicose,  rebel,  belligerent,  etc.) 

Look  up  the  following  words:  antecedent,  antechamber,  antedate, 
antediluvian,  anticipate,  antiquity. 

For  post-  as  a  prefix,  note  postscript,  which  means 
"that  which  is  written  after" ;  also  note  postpone,  poster- 
ity, postgraduate.  This  prefix  is  used  in  many  compound, 
technical  words,  such  as  post-natal,  which  means  "havin*;' 
happened  after  birth,"  and  post-frontal,  "back  of  the 
frontal  bone  of  the  skull." 

Look  up  the  following  words:  anterior — posterior;  anteprandial — 
postprandial ;  antemeridian — postmeridian. 

Circum-. — Circum-  signifies  "about"  or  "around." 
Circumambulate  comes  from  circum-  (around)  and  am- 
hulo  (I  walk)  and  means  "to  walk  around."  Circumfer- 
ence is  from  circum-  (around)  and  fero  (I  bear  or  carry) 
and  means  "that  which  is  borne  or  carried  around,"  as 
the  boundary  of  a  circle.  Circumstances  are  things  which 
stand  about  or  around.  A  circumspect  person  is  one  who 
looks  {spec,  look)  all  around  a  thing  or  problem  before  he 
acts.  We  circumvent  another  when  we  get  {ven,  come) 
all  around  him  or  his  plans. 

Look  up  the  following  words :  circumlocution,  circumscribe,  circuni- 
polar,  circumnavigate. 

Sub-  and  super-. — Sub-  signifies  "under";  super-, 
"above"  or  "over."  Thus  we  have  subcellar  and  super- 
structure. Subdue  is  from  sub-  (under)  and  duco  (I 
lead) ;  consequently,  subdue  is  almost  identical  in  mean- 
ing with  overcome.  It  will  interest  the  student  to  note 
these  two  words,  which  mean  about  the  same  thing.  The 
Latin  got  the  better  of  an  enemy  by  the  indirect  method 
of  leading  him  under,  as  shown  in  subdue,  while  the 


VOCABULARY-BUILDING  199 

Saxon  word,  overcome,  gives  the  feeling  of  beating  one 
directly  by  a  strong,  face-on  attack. 

The  meaning  of  super-  can  be  gathered  from  super- 
abundance, which  means  "more  than  an  abundance" — 
"a  generous  plenty."  Superfine  is  more  than  fine  or 
overfine,  and  superfluous  is  more  than  enough — to  over- 
flowing {fluo,li\ow). 

Look  up  the  following  words:  submarine,  subterranean,  subaerial, 
subaltern,  subconscious,  subcontract,  subdivision,  subject  (as  a  noun, 
adjective,  or  verb),  subjugate,  submission,  subordinate,  subpoena. 

It  will  be  noted  that  often  before  c,  f,  g,  m,  p,  and  r,  the 
h  is  assimilated  to  the  following  letter.  We  find 
succor  (to  run  to  a  person,  to  come  up  as  an  aid  or  sup- 
port), from  suh-  (under)  and  curro  (I  run) ;  other  exam- 
ples are  sufix,  supplant,  surreptitious. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  superficial,  supernatural,  supercil- 
ious (a  very  interesting  word),  superintendent. 

Sometimes  super-  is  written  sur-,  as  in  surprise,  sur- 
round, surrender,  survive,  survey. 

Trans-. — Trans-  means  "across."  See  transfer  (to 
bear  or  carry  across). 

Look  up  the  following  words:  transcontinental,  translate,  trans- 
form, transmigration,  transcend,  transfuse,  transfix,  transmit. 

Inter-. — Inter-  means  "between"  or  "among."  Thus, 
intercollegiate  means  "between  colleges,"  as  used  in 
the  expression,  "intercollegiate  football."  Interrupt 
means  "to  break  in  between."  A  rupture  is  a  break  of 
any  sort.  Interchangeable  parts  are  those  which  are 
changeable  among  themselves. 

Look  up  the  following  words :  interact,  interbreed,  intercede,  inter- 
cept, intercommunicate,  intercourse,  interdict,  interest,  interfere,  inter- 
fuse, interjection,  interlock,  intermediate,  intermission,  interrogate, 
intervene. 


200  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Per-. — This  prefix  means  "througli."  Join  it  to  the 
Latin  root,  meare  (to  pass),  and  you  get  permeare  (to 
pass  through).  The  English  word  is  permeate.  There- 
fore permeate  means  "to  pass  through,"  "to  fill  the  crev- 
ices or  pores  and  to  pervade  a  thing. " 

Look  up  the  following  words :  pervade,  perspiration,  perpetrate, 
perjury,  permanent,  permit,  peruse,  perverse,  persist. 

Ex-  and  m-. — Ex-  means  "out,"  while  in-,  as  might  be 
guessed,  means  "in."  Thus,  we  have  export,  which 
means  "that  which  is  carried  out,"  and  import,  "that 
which  is  carried  in. ' ' 

Look  up  the  following  words :  expel,  exact,  example,  exceed,  except, 
exchange,  excite,  expand;  increase,  incline,  inclose,  inception,  incarna- 
tion. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in-  may  also  mean  "not,"  as  in 
incautious  (not  cautious).  See  also  improper  {in-  and 
proper),  incontestable,  independent,  and  insufficient. 

Other  Important  Latin  Prefixes. — While  we  cannot 
give  so  much  space  to  all  the  Latin  prefixes,  the  following 
list  may  easily  be  studied  by  the  student  who  follows  the 
method  already  suggested.  Of  course,  the  dictionary 
must  be  consulted  all  the  time. 

1.  C071-  (together  or  with) ,  as  in  ' '  co^ttend, ' '  to  strive  with ; 

"  co?( vention,"  a  coming  together. 

2.  de-  (down  from),  as  in  ''descend,"  to  climb  down. 

3.  re-  (back  or  again),  as  in  "recline,"  to  lean  back;  "re- 

turn, ' '  to  turn  again. 

4.  pro-    (forward   or   ahead),   as  in   "provide,"   to   look 

ahead ;  ' '  promote, ' '  to  move  ahead  or  before. 

5.  pre-   (before),  as  in  "predict,"  to  tell  before;  "pre- 

lude," play  before. 

6.  po.s'^-  (after),  as  in  "postpone,"  to  place  after;  "post- 

lude, ' '  play  after. 

7.  non-  (not),  as  in  " 7ioneombatant "  or  ^'nonsense." 

There  are  other  Latin  prefixes,  but  those  are  the  most 
important. 


VOCABULARY-BUILDING  201 

(b)     Greek  Prefixes 

There  are  not,  in  English,  so  many  prefixes  of  Greek 
origin  as  of  Latin  origin,  yet  the  following  selected  ones 
do  not  exhaust  the  list. 

1.  a-  or  an-  (not  or  without) ,  as  in  ' '  atheist, ' '  one  without  a 

God;  "achromatic,"  without  color;  "aphasia," 
lack  of  speech;  "amnesia,"  lack  of  memory.  An 
anesthetic  {an-,  not,  aistlietos,  sensible)  is  some- 
thing to  take  away  sensation — chemicals  like  ether 
and  chloroform. 

2.  amhi-  or  ampM-  (double),  as  in  " amhidexivous,"  dex- 

trous with  both  hands,  as  though  having  two  right 
hands;  "amphibious,"  double-lived,  as  a  frog, 
which  can  live  in  water  or  on  land.  An  amphi- 
theatre was  a  place  with  a  complete  circle  of  seats 
while  the  ancient  theatre  had  but  a  half-circle  of 
seats;  thus  an  amphitheatre  was  a  double  theatre. 

3.  ana-   (back  again),   as  in  " a^i-alysis, "  a  tracing  back 

again;  "anagram,"  something  written  (gram) 
which  may  be  rearranged,  used  anew,  or  used 
again.  The  game  of  anagrams  consists  of  rearrang- 
ing the  letters  of  one  word  so  as  to  form  as  many 
other  words  as  possible. 

4.  ant-  or  aiiti-  (opposite),  as  in  "awf arctic,"  opposite  the 

arctic  or  north;  "antipathy,"  an  opposite  or 
antagonistic  feeling. 

5.  di-  or  dia-  (through  or  between),  as  in  "cZiameter,"  the 

measure  through  ;  ' '  dialogue, ' '  speech  between  two 
persons. 

6.  epi-  (upon),  as  in  "epidemic,"  upon  the  people — a  sick- 

ness upon  the  people. 

7.  hyper-  (over  or  beyond),  as  in  " hij percviticRl,"  over- 

critical. 

8.  meta-  (beyond),  as  in  "wie^aphysics,"  a  study  beyond 

the  physical  into  the  spiritual. 

9.  peri-  (around),  as  in  "perimeter,"  the  measure  around 

— the  circumference. 
10.     sy-,  syn-,  or  sym-  (together),  "si/nchronous,"  together 
in  time — at  the  same  time;  "si/mpathy,"  fellow 
feeling  or  suffci'ing  together  with  another;  "syr,i- 
phony,"  blending  together  of  sounds. 


202  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(c)     Some  Saxon  Prefixes 

The  Saxon  prefixes  are  easy  because  most  of  them  bear 
the  regular  English  meaning  which  they  have  as  inde- 
pendent words.  The  italicized  parts  of  the  following 
words  are  such  prefixes:  doivnYight,  midship),  nothing 
or  nobody,  offset,  onset  or  onslaught,  ow^bid  or  outr-an, 
overflow,  underlored,  and  npMt    Note  also  the  following : 

1.  a-  (at,  in,  or  on),  as  in  "afar,"  at  a  distance;  "afoot," 

on  foot. 

2.  he-  (to  or  on) ,  as  in  ' '  bestir, ' '  to  stir ;  ' '  &edrip, ' '  drip  on. 

3.  for-  (away  or  not),  as  in  ''forgiYe,"  give  away;  "for- 

get, ' '  not  to  get. 

4.  fore-  ( before ) ,  as  in  ' '  foretell "  ;  "  forewarn. ' ' 

5.  mis-    ( wrong) ,    as   in    ' '  wiisspell "  ;    "  mistake "  ;    "  mis- 

state. ' ' 

6.  n-  ( not) ,  as  in  ' '  neither, ' '  not  either ;  ' '  ?iever " ;  "  none. ' ' 

7.  un-  (removal  or  not),  as  in  "unhand'';  "unjust." 

8.  with-    (from   or  against),   as  in  "withdraw";   "with- 

stand. ' ' 

(d)     Suffixes 

There  are  a  great  number  of  Latin,  though  not  so  many 
Greek,  suffixes  in  our  English  vocabulary.  We  shall  list 
some  of  the  most  important.  But -first  note  for  yourself 
the  influence  of  a  suffix.  Take  modest;  now  add  -y  as  a 
suffix  and  make  up  your  mind  what  the  -y  stands  for  in 
modesty.  Take  the  ending  -ry  and  note  its  influence  when 
added  to  hrave  so  as  to  form  bravery.  These  suffixes 
change  adjectives  which  might  be  applied  to  one  man 
(that  is,  a  man  who  is  modest  or  brave)  to  the  name  of 
the  quality  which  that  man  possesses — in  these  cases, 
"modesty"  and  "bravery."  The  Saxon  suffix  for  the 
same  thing  is  -ness,  as  in  "goodness";  " sweetl^e55 " ; 
"brie;htwe55." 


VOCABULARY-BUILDING  203 

The  simplest  suffixes  to  understand  are  the  Saxon.  The 
following  is  a  representative  list : 

1.  -dom    (state  or  dominion),   as  in  "kingdom" ;   "free- 

dom-' ' ;  "  ChristencZowi. ' ' 

2.  -en  (made  of),  as  in  "woole?i";  "wooden";  "leaden"; 

"brazen,"  made  of  brass. 

3.  -er  (one  who) ,  as  in  ' '  winner, ' '  one  who  wins ;  ' ' singer, ' ' 

one  who  sings. 

4.  -em   (towards  or  of),  as  in  "norther?i,"  towards  or  of 

the  north. 

5.  -ess   (female),  as  in  "lioness." 

6.  -fid  (abounding  or  full),  as  in  "plenti/i^r' ;  "beauti- 

M" 

7.  -liood    (state),    as    in    " mother/ioocZ "  ;    " f ather/ioocZ " ; 

' '  maiden/ioocZ  "  ;  "  knight/ioocZ. ' ' 

8.  -isli  (like  or  belonging),  as  in  "yellowis/i";  "DamsTi." 

9.  -kin  (small),  as  in  "lambA'in,"  little  lamb;  "fir/cin, "  a 

small  barrel  or  cask. 

10.  -ling  (little  or  young),  as  in  "diiGkling" ;  "fledgZingr." 

11.  -like  and  -ly  (manner),  as  in  "womanlike"  and  "wo- 

manly. ' ' 

12.  -7iess     (condition    or    quality),    as    in    "happiness"; 

' '  brightness  "  ;  "  heal thi?(  ess. ' ' 

13.  -ock  ( small  or  young) ,  as  in  "  hillocfc  " ;  " huWock. ' ' 

14.  -ship   (state  or  office),  as  in  " courtship" ;  "steward- 

s/up. ' ' 

15.  -some    (like   or  causing),   as  in   "gladsome,"   causing 

gladness;  "wearisome";  "tiresome";  "irksome." 

16.  -ster  (one  who) ,  as  in  " spinster, ' '  one  who  spins ;  ' ' song- 

ster." 

17.  -ward  (toward),  as  in  " heavemoard " ;  "southM;arcZ"; 

' '  iorward. ' ' 

18.  -wise  (way),  as  in  "sideime,"  side  way;  " othermse " ; 

' '  thusM^'ise. ' ' 

19.  -y  (little),  as  in  "babi/,"  little  babe. 

A  few  of  the  classical  suffixes  are  here  given: 

1.  -ac  (pertaining  to),  as  in  "cardiac,"  pertaining  to  the 

heart. 

2.  -aceous  (having  the  character  of),  as  in  "herbaceous." 

3.  -an  or  -iV/n  (pertaining  to  or  one  who),  as  in  "sylvan," 

pertaining  to  the  woods ;  ' '  christian, ' '  one  who  ac- 
knowledges Christ. 


204  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

4.  -ance   or  -ancy    (state  of  being),   as  in   "constancy,'' 

state  of  being  constant. 

5.  -ant  (one  who),  as  in  "servant." 

6.  -ar  (pertaining  to,  one  who,  or  having) ,  as  in  ' ' nebular, ' ' 

pertaining   to   the   nebulus;   "scholar,"   one   who 
studies;  "muscular,"  having  muscles. 

7.  -able  or  -ible  (may  be  or  worthy),  as  in  "curahle" ;  " re- 

sponsible." 

8.  -ee  (one  to  whom),  as  in  "payee";  "donee." 

9.  -ify  (to  make) ,  as  in  ' ' clarify, ' '  to  make  clear ;  ' ' deify, ' ' 

to  make  a  god. 

10.  -ic  or  -ical  (like  or  pertaining  to),  as  in  "angeKc, "  like 

an  angel;  "botanico?,"  pertaining  to  botany  or  the 
flowers. 

11.  -ics    (the   science   or   art    of),    as   in   "mathematics"; 

"therapeutics,"  science  of  curing — medicine. 

12.  -ine  (belonging  to),  as  in  "leom?ie, "  belonging  to  the 

lion;  "marme,"  belonging  to  the  sea. 

13.  -Hon  or  -sion  (act  of  or  state  of  being),  as  in  "conflagra- 

tion,"  act  of  burning;  "perfection,"  state  of  the 
perfect. 

14.  -ist   (one  who),  as  in  "theorisf,"  one  who  theorizes; 

' '  botanist "  ;  "  chemist. ' ' 

15.  -ity  or  -ty  (state  of  being),  as  in  "humidity,"  state  of 

being  humid  or  moist;  "modesty/,"  state  of  being 
modest. 

16.  -ose  (full  of),  as  in  "verbose,"  full  of  words — talkative. 

17.  -ry   (being,  art  of,  or  place  where),  as  in  "bravert/," 

being    brave ;    ' '  surgery, ' '    art    of    the    surgeon  ; 
"fisher^/,"  place  for  fishing. 

18.  -itude  (state  of),  as  in  "soHtwcZe,"  state  of  being  alone. 

19.  -ule   (little),  as  in  "globule,"  little  globe;  "granule," 

little  grain. 


(e)     Root  Words 

Saxon  root  words  are  simple  and  hardly  need  treat- 
ment, bnt  we  sliall  list  a  few^  useful  Latin  and  Greek 
words  which  are  often  found  as  parts  of  larger  words  in 
modern  English. 


VOCABULARY-BUILDING  205 

1.  cor   (heart),  as  in  '^core/^  heart;  ''cordial,"  hearty; 

"concord,"  {con,  together,  and  cor,  heart),  hearts 
beating  together.  On  the  other  hand,  note  "dis- 
cord," hearts  apart  or  disagreement. 

Can  you  find  other  words  with  cor  as  a  part? 

2.  aqua  (water),  as  in  "aquarium/'  a  water  tank  in  which 

fishes  are  kept.  An  aqueduct  (aqua,  water,  and 
due,  lead)  is  a  means  of  leading  water  from  one 
place  to  another. 

Look  up  the  following  words :  aquatic  and  aqueous. 
Do  you  know  other  words  with  aqua  as  the  root? 

3.  ani7na  (life),  as  in  "aniwmtion,"  liveliness.     An  i7iani- 

mate  object  is  one  without  life. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  animal,  animus,  ani- 
mosity, and  animadvert. 

4.  due  (lead),  as  in  "reduce,"  to  make  less  since  it  gives 

the  notion  6f  retracing  steps  because  you  are  led 
back;  "procZi/ce,"  to  bring  forth.  We  induce  a 
man  to  do  a  thing  because  we  lead  him  into  the 
enterprise.  We  educate  a  boy  by  drawing  out 
(e,  out)  what  is  in  him. 

What  does  ductile  mean?  Look  up  other  words  with 
due  as  a  part. 

5.  audi  (hear),  as  in  " auditormm,"  a  place  where  we  hear 

speeches  and  music.  A  sound  is  audible  when  the 
ear  can  hear  it.  An  audience  is  a  group  of  listen- 
ers. It  is  interesting  to  note  that  an  audit  which 
is  an  investigation  of  accounts  came  from  audi 
because  such  investigations  were  originally  judicial 
hearings. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  auditory,  inaudible, 
audiphone,  audiometer. 

Z.  spec  (seeing  or  sight),  as  in  "spectacles,"  things  with 
which  to  see.  We  inspect  when  we  look  into  a 
thing. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  spectrum,  respect, 
retrospect,  expect,  spectator,  and  other  words  containin-^ 
this  part. 

7.    cap  (take) ,  as  in  " capture, ' '  to  take ;  ''captive. '* 


206  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


How  does  captivate  differ  from  capturel  See  also 
capable. 

cap  (head),  as  in  "captain";  "capital";  "capitol"; 
"caption."  Capillary  means  "thread-like  or 
minute  tube"  because  such  a  tube  is  fine  as  a  hair. 
A  hair,  in  Latin,  was  capillus  because  it  grew  on 
the  head  (caput). 

Find  other  words  with  cap  or  capt  meaning  either 
"head"  or  "take." 

8.  tract  (draw  or  pull),  as  in  "detract."    To  detract  from 

a  person  is  to  draw  away  from  his  reputation  or 
position.  One  attracts  when  he  draws  others  to 
him. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  tractions,  retract,  ex- 
tract. 

9.  voc  (voice),  as  in  "focal."  Vocal  music  comes  from  the 

voice  and  from  no  other  instrument. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  advocate,  invocate, 
vocative,  vocation,  avocation,  revoke. 

10.  volv  (rolling  or  turning),  as  in  "revolve."    We  revolve 

a  thing  when  we  turn  it  over  physically  or  in  our 
minds. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  evolution,  involution, 
revolution,  and  others.  Why  is  a  pistol  called  a  revolver '1 

11.  temp  (time),  as  in  "temporizes,"  to  take  up  time  or  to 

delay. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  contemporarj',  ex- 
temporize, temporal,  temporary,  temperate.  After  look- 
ing in  a  good  dictionary,  tell  why  temperance,  tempera- 
ment, and  temperature  are  connected  in  meaning  witli 
the  word  which  represents  them. 

12.  gren  (beginning),  as  in  "(rcnesis."    The  book  of  6rewe.s?'s 

in  the  Bible  {hiblos,  book)  tells  of  the  beginning. 
A  geneology  is  an  account  or  the  words  (logos, 
word)  about  a  man's  origin.  Hydrog'eii  (hydr, 
water)  is  the  element  necessary  to  originate  water. 
(Note  hydrant  and  other  words.) 

Look  up  the  following  words:  primogeniture,  homo- 
geneous, heterogeneous,  exogenous,  and  genetic. 


VOCABULARY-BUILDING  207 

13.  arch  (leader  or  ruler) ,  as  in  " monarcJiy. ' '    A  monnrcJiy 

has  one  {monos,  one)  ruler. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  hierarchy,  heptarchy, 
archives.     Why  should  records  be  called  archives! 

14.  log  (word,  or  that  which  is  spoken  and  recorded),  as  in 

"biology,"  the  science  which  deals  with  the  phe- 
nomena of  life.  It  is  a  collection  of  the  words  on 
that  subject.  Antliropology  studies  man  {anthro- 
pos,  man). 

Look  up  the  following  words:  logic,  analogy,  physi- 
ology, psychology,  and  the  other  "ologies"  or  studies. 

15.  gram  (marriage) ,  as  in  ' ' polygramy, "  the  practice  of  hav- 

ing many  {poly)  wives;  "higamj,"  having  two 
{hi)  wives. 

What  does  monogamy  mean? 

16.  poly  (many),  as  in  ' ' poZt/technie. "    A  polyteclmic  insti- 

tute teaches  many  technical  branches. 

Look  up  the  following  words:  polygon,  polytheism, 
polydactyl.  Why  do  we  call  a  man  who  speaks  many 
languages  a  polyglot '! 

17.  auto  (self),  as  in  "at<^omobile,"  a  vehicle  which  moves 

itself.  Auto-intoxication  is  the  intoxication  from 
poisons  within  one's  own  body. 

What  is  an  autocrat '! 

We  have  by  no  means  exhausted  the  important  root 
words  of  the  languages,  but  Ave  have  given  enough  types 
to  interest  the  student  in  the  discovery  of  prefixes,  suf- 
fixes, and  roots,  and  to  stimulate  him  to  undertake  word 
analysis.  If  you  should  like  more  of  these  parts  of 
words,  study  your  dictionary,  consult  an  English  and  a 
Latin  grammar,  and  keep  a  notebook  section  as  suggested 
in  the  following  paragraph. 

Each  time  you  come  across  a  new  word,  look  it  up. 
Has  it  a  prefix?  Very  well,  try  to  find  as  many  other 
words  as  you  can  with  the  same  prefix  and  study  its  effect 
upon  the  meaning  of  each.     Is  there  a  suffix?     Then  do 


208  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

the  same  thing  in  reference  to  it.  The  root  words,  how- 
ever, will  be  by  far  the  most  interesting.  Any  student 
will  find  it  well  worth  his  time  to  keep  a  notebook  of 
roots.  Devote  one  or  more  pages  to  each  root  and  the 
family  of  words  in  which  it  occurs.  For  instance,  take 
poll  (city).    Write  on  the  page  as  follows: 

POLi  (city) 

metropolis,  greatest  {meter,  mother)  city, 
cosmopolitan  city,  a  city  of  the  world   {cosmos) 

with  all  races  for  its  people, 
police,  city  guard, 
politics,  city  affairs,  and,  since  Greek  cities  were 

the  units  of  government,  governmental  affairs; 

and  so  on. 

^^Hiile,  of  course,  the  study  of  foreign  languages  will 
help  the  student  greatly  in  the  mastery  of  English  words, 
much  progress  can  be  made  by  one  who  speaks  only  the 
mother  tongue  if  he  systematically  consults  the  diction- 
ary and  follows  the  directions  given  in  this  lesson.  In- 
deed such  a  practice  will  make  the  acquisition  of  a  foreign 
vocabulary  easy  for  him  when  he  does  take  up  the  study 
of  tongues  other  than  ours.  Certainly  he  will  have  an 
insight  into  his  own  language  and  he  will,  no  doubt,  use 
words  at  his  command  in  a  discriminating  way.  The 
greatest  safeguard  against  the  incorrect  or  inaccurate 
use  of  words  is  a  knowledge  of  their  original  meanings 
and  the  primitive  meanings  of  their  parts. 

In  conclusion,  then,  I  strongly  recommend  each  student 
to  keep  a  notebook  which  fits  easily  in  the  pocket  (prefer- 
ably the  loose-leaf  kind)  for  the  piirpose  of  recording 
words  in  groups.  The  grouping  will  be  according  to 
common  parts.  There  will  be  families  brought  together 
because  of  a  connnon  root,  groups  with  the  same  prefixes, 


VOCAlM'l.ARY-HriLDlXG  209 

and  others  recorded  one  after  the  other  Ijecause  of  siifhx 
ag-reemeiit.  This  work  will  be  of  absorbing  interest  and 
Ijermanent  profit. 


Assignment  of  Woek 


The  written  exercises  in  tliis  entire  lesson  slumld  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  uf  the  written  exer- 
cises in  your  notebook. 

First  Day. — Read  the  lesson  through  two  or  three  times  so  as  to 
get  the  entire  meaning. 

Second  and  Third  Days. — Take  time  to  look  up  all  the  words 
Avhich  are  mentioned  in  the  lesson  and  which  the  lesson  does 
not  explain  fully. 

Fourth  Day. — Outline  a  speech  about  the  origin  of  English 
words.  Deliver  it  orally  from  the  memorized  outline.  Be 
careful  to  have  your  illustrations  well  prepared.  Get  some 
from  other  sources  than  this  lesson. 

Fifth  Day. — Prepare  a  speech  on  the  subject,  "Vocabulary- 
Building.  ' ' 


Additional  Reminders 

1.  Are  you  keeping  up  your  posture  and  breathing  exer- 
cises ? 

2.  Are  you  observing  and  criticising  other  speakers? 

3.  Are  you  practicing  many  extemporaneous  speeches? 

4.  Are  you  working  on  your  vocabulary  ? 

5.  Are  you  keeping  up  the  retiection  hour? 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  suggestive  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  What  is  the  difference  between  exactness  and  facility  in 
the  use  of  words  ?  Do  you  use  words  with  exactness  ?  Have  you 
facility? 

2.  Is  a  large  vocabulary  necessary  for  a  speaker?  Is  a 
ready  use  of  words  necessary?  Of  the  two,  scope  and  availa- 
bility, which  is  more  vital  to  a  speaker's  success? 

3.  What  is  a  prefix?    a  suffix?  a  root? 

4.  What  are  the  great  sources  of  English  words?  Name 
other  sources. 

5.  How  do'3s  consult  differ  in  meaning  from  confer  ? 

6.  How  are  perplexity,  astonishment,  hewilderment,  and 
confusion  related? 

7.  What  added  idea  has  novel  over  new  ? 

8.  Distinguish  between  contemporary  history  and  modern 
history, 

9.  How  are  model,  pattern,  prototype,  and  archetype  re- 
lated? 

10.  Can  you  get  other  groups  of  words  like  those  mentioned 
in  Question  5?  Does  word  analysis  help  you  to  make  distinc- 
tions? Does  it  aid  in  understanding  words?  Keep  a  collection 
of  related  groups. 

11.  What  effect  on  the  style  of  a  man's  speech  has  the  use 
of  a  great  many  Saxon  words?  a  great  many  classical  words? 

12.  Why  should  a  vocabulary  be  made  up  of  words  of  va- 
rious sources  ? 

13.  In  actual  address,  should  you  incline  toward  one  class 
of  words,  or  is  variety  desirable  ? 

14.  Can  variety  be  secured  by  an  effort  of  the  will  at  the 
time  of  delivery,  or  will  it  arise  naturally  if  the  preparation  and 
study  of  words  has  been  varied  ? 

210 


k     y 


LESSON  12 


GENERAL  IDEAS  OR  CONCEPTS 


in  Lessons  9  and  10  we  consider  the  ways  in  which  a 
speaker  could  give  an  audience  an  appreciation  of  images. 
W^e  assumed  that  an  image  of  something  actually  seen, 
heard,  felt — in  short,  experienced — was  the  simplest  men- 
tal possession  which  a  speaker  could  consciously  have. 
The  use  of  words  to  transfer  this  image  to  the  mind  of  the 
listener,  we  called  "description"  in  some  cases  and  "nar- 
ration" in  others.  But  in  all  cases,  we  insisted  that  im- 
ages were  the  impressions  of  particular  things*  concrete 
things,  real,  existing  things.  Among  our  examples  of 
images  were  a  particular  sunrise  as  witnessed  by  Edward 
Hverett,  the  execution  of  a  French  criminal  in  a  certain 
place  at  a  definite  time,  and  the  re-creation  of  the  scene 
enacted  on  Bunker  Hill  during  the  nineteenth  of  April. 
1776.  All  these  were  records  of  particular  things.  But 
the  mind  often  goes  beyond  the  particular. 

It  is  well  known  that  after  the  mind  has  been  im- 
pressed with  a  number  of  particular  experiences,  it  be- 
gins to  group  them  together  and  to  note  points  of  likeness 
and  difference.  Then  emerges  a  general  notion.  After 
seeing  many  sunrises,  we  note  that  while  on  one  morning 
the  sun  looked  red  and  on  another  more  golden,  while  on 
one  morning  there  was  a  mist  and  on  another  all  was 
clear,  still  every  sunrise  had  some  characteristics  in 
common  with  every  other  sunrise.  These  points  of  like- 
ness exist  for  all  and  are  inseparably  connected  with  our 
mental  appraisal  of  sunrises  in  general.  This  and  other 
abstract  notions  fill  our  minds  and  seek  expression  dur- 

211 


212  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ing  a  speech.  It  will  be  the  purpose  of  this  lesson  to  ex- 
plain the  nature  of  general  ideas  or  concepts  (as  the 
psychologists  would  call  them)  and  to  outline  methods  of 
expressing  them  to  other  people. 

1.  Individual  Differences  and  Family  Likenesses 

Let  us  suppose  that  you  were  to  attend  the  meeting  of 
a  New  York  local  union  of  typesetters.  The  men  would 
come  and  the  chairman  Avould  call  the  meeting  to  order. 
The  minutes  of  the  last  meeting  would  record,  let  us  say, 
that  a  resolution  had  been  passed  to  the  effect  that  the 
period  of  apprenticeship  in  a  certain  line  of  employment 
should  be  three  years  instead  of  two.  A  further  reading 
would  tell  you  that  $300  had  been  spent  for  sick  relief  and 
that  the  strike  in  such  and  such  publishing  house  had  been 
arbitrated  with  the  following  scale  of  Avages  and  hours  of 
employment  as  the  basis  for  the  resumption  of  work,  etc. 
Then  the  new  business  would  include  a  discussion  of  the 
recently  proposed  workmen's  compensation  law  and  a 
committee  would  be  appointed  to  attend  the  legislative 
hearing  as  an  instructed  delegation. 

On  another  evening  you  visit  the  bricklayers '  union  and 
hear  a  discussion  of  the  duties  of  a  master  bricklayer  in 
contradistinction  to  those  of  a  helper  or  hod  carrier.  The 
rule  that  the  trowel  must  be  retained  in  the  hand  through- 
out the  hours  of  employment,  is  repeatedly  mentioned.  So 
also  do  you  find  out  that  there  is  a  certain,  standard 
number  of  bricks  to  be  laid  as  constituting  a  union  day's 
work.  Life  insurance,  you  learn,  has  just  been  paid  to  a 
widow  whose  husband  died  the  month  before.  Then,  going 
to  the  meeting  of  a  miners'  union  in  Pennsylvania,  an- 
other of  locomotive  engineers,  and  yet  another  of  marble 
cutters,  you  are  informed  concerning  the  details  of  each 
anion's  business. 


GENERAL  IDEAS  OR  CONCEPTS  213 

After  visiting  many  unions,  you  discover  that  while  one 
deals  with  this  trade  and  another  with  that,  while  one  has 
a  long  period  of  apprenticeship  and  another  a  short 
period  or  no  apprenticeship  at  all,  while  one  insists  on  a 
rigid  wage  scale  and  another  on  a  flexible  rate  of  pay, 
while  one  objects  to  the  introduction  of  machinery  and 
another  offers  no  objections  whatsoever — all  have  certain 
points  in  common.  All  stand  for  collective  bargaining, 
so  that  the  individual  workman  is  not  at  the  mercy  of  a 
more  powerful  employer,  all  seek  to  shorten  the  hours 
of  work  and  lengthen  the  time  available  for  rest  and 
recreation,  all  seek  to  keep  their  members  informed  con- 
cerning the  state  of  their  trade  throughout  the  country. 
In  short,  certain  things  are  essential  to  all  unions 
(these  are  the  family  points  of  agreement)  while  certain 
other  things  are  peculiar  to  particular  unions.  Your  im- 
pressions of  a  particular  union  are  those  received 
through  your  senses  while  at  its  meeting,  but  your  notion 
of  "labor  union"  as  a  general  name  includes  only  the 
features  which  are  general  or  common  to  all. 

We  form  concepts  or  general  notions  of  all  things 
which  are  similar  in  certain  essential  respects  though 
possessing  individual  differences.  Thus  your  concept  of 
"house"  embraces  certain  features  of  structure  and 
shelter  possibilities,  and  disregards  accidental  or  minor 
details  of  size,  material,  and  color  of  the  paint.  John 
Smith  and  Tom  Jones  differ  from  each  other  in  many  re- 
spects, but  both  come  under  your  notion  of  "man"  be- 
cause they  possess  the  features  which  are  characteristic 
of  manhood.  In  other  words,  an  image  or  the  impression 
of  a  real  thing  which  you  can  get  through  your  senses 
is  particular,  while  a  concept  or  notion  of  the  essential 
features  of  every  member  of  a  class  is  general.  Concepts 
include  only  general  characteristics.  ~^ 


214  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

2.    Kinds  of  Concepts 

General  ideas  which  you  may  want  to  express  to  others 
are  of  various  kinds.    The  most  important  are : 

1.  Classes  of  physical  things,  usually  expressed  by  a 
common  noun.  Thus  the  word  "house"  is  the  name  of  a 
class  of  buildings  which  have  certain  characteristics  in 
coimnon.  So  also:  desk,  man,  snowstorm,  suspension- 
bridge,  battleship,  aeroplane,  balloon — each  representing 
a  general  group  of  individual  things. 

2.  Processes  or  principles  of  operation.  For  instance, 
suppose  you  are  a  dairy  man  and  you  have  knowledge  of 
the  process  of  pasteurizing  milk ;  your  notion  is  general 
rather  than  particular,  especially  if  you  are  acquainted 
with  more  than  one  pasteurizing  plant.  You  know  that 
whether  the  milk  is  brought  in  cans  or  bottles,  from  near 
or  far,  it  must  all  be  put  into  a  tank  where  its  tempera- 
ture is  brought  up  to  a  certain  point  at  which  disease 
bacteria  are  rendered  harmless,  and  the  temperature 
must  be  maintained  at  this  point  the  required  period  of 
time.  The  heating  tank  may  be  of  one  or  another  mate- 
rial in  any  particular  plant,  but  in  all  cases  it  must  be 
constructed  so  as  to  be  able  to  stand  the  heat  and  it  must 
be  of  a  material  which  will  not  harm  the  milk.  Such  is 
your  concept  of  the  process  of  pasteurization.  Any  prin- 
ciple of  operation  or  process,  be  it  the  one  mentioned, 
electrotyping,  printing,  surgical  technique  in  removing  an 
appendix,  method  of  teaching  a  language,  or  what  not. 
may  be  known  as  to  its  general,  essential  characteristics. 
These  qualities  constitute  your  concept  of  the  process. 

3.  Abstract  or  general  qualities,  like  goodness,  utility, 
or  beauty.  Suppose  you  say:  ''This  blond  woman  has 
beauty  and  so  also  has  that  brunette."  "This  building  is 
beautiful  and  so  is  that  painting."  All  these  individual 
things  are  different,  yet  each  has  something  which  you 


GENERAL  IDEAS  OR  CONCEPTS  215 

call  ** beauty."  If  at  some  time  you  were  asked  just 
what  is  meant  by  "beauty"  you  would  have  to  make  cleai' 
your  general  notion.  If  for  instance  you  should  say, 
* '  The  White  House  is  beautiful  but  the  Capitol  is  not, ' '  it 
might  be  necessary  for  you  to  make  clear  the  essentials 
of  beauty  to  defend  your  statement. 

Most  concepts  come  under  the  three  classes  just  men- 
tioned— physical  classes,  principles  or  processes,  and  ab- 
stract qualities. 

3.  The  Expression  of  a  Concept 

Concepts,  as  a  rule,  can  be  represented  by  single  words 
or  small  groups  of  words.  For  example,  the  word  '^util- 
ity" expresses  a  general,  abstract  notion  of  quality.  If 
you  should  use  that  word  and  all  the  people  who  heard 
you  should  understand  it  in  exactly  the  same  way  that 
you  do,  then  the  single  word  would  fully  express  the  con- 
cept. But  very  often  listeners  either  do  not  know  the 
word  at  all,  or  are  uncertain  concerning  its  meaning,  or 
attach  a  meaning  to  it  entirely  different  from  the  one  you 
have  in  mind.  Furthermore,  besides  reacting  to  the  word 
in  the  wrong  way,  the  listener  may  have  either  no  notion 
at  all  or  a  hazy  one  of  the  concept  you  wish  to  express. 
Therefore  it  is  usually  necessary  to  express  concepts  in 
round-about  ways  so  as  to  leave  no  doubt  about  the  grasp 
of  the  concepts  and  therefore  the  exact  meanings  which 
you  attach  to  your  words. 

Let  us  use  an  illustration  already  mentioned.  You  are 
saying  that  the  aim  of  all  production  (the  co-operation  of 
land,  labor,  and  capital)  is  to  create  utility.  Then  you  ex- 
plain, saying,  ''The  only  object  for  engaging  in  the  manu- 
facture of  shoes,  is  the  creation  of  a  useful  article,  the 
shoe.  Shoes  are  useful  because  they  are  formed  so  as  to 
protect  the  feet  from  rough  knocks  and  from  cold.   Their 


216  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

form  and  material  enable  them  to  serve  this  useful  pur- 
pose. Their  usefulness  or  utility  arises  because  men  have 
given  them  the  proper  form.  But  even  this  human  need 
of  protection  for  the  feet  could  not  be  met  if  the  shoes 
were  not  transported  to  the  place  where  the  user  needs 
them.  Consequently  while  the  manufacturers  create 
form  utility,  the  railroads  give  them  place  utility.  Fur- 
thermore, shoes  must  be  on  hand  at  the  time  they  are 
needed.  The  retailer,  who  keeps  a  stock  from  which  to 
meet  the  user's  need  at  the  proper  time,  gives  a  time 
utility  to  the  shoes.  All  economic  production  is  directed 
to  creating  just  such  utilities  in  goods  or  services.  Look- 
ing back  at  each  kind  of  utility  mentioned  we  can  say  that 
utility,  in  general,  is  something  connected  with  the  good 
which  makes  it  capable  of  satisfying  human  wants." 
After  such  a  talk,  the  hearer  who  had  never  come  across 
the  word  '^ utility,"  would  get  some  idea  of  its  meaning 
and  the  one  who  had  not  made  the  abstraction  for  himself 
would  be  guided  to  make  it.  The  following  extract  from 
Henry  Ward  Beecher's  famous  speech  in  London  on  the 
question  of  Slavery  (the  last  of  his  five  speeches  in  Great 
Britain)  expresses  a  concept  of  ''state's  rights"  in  such 
a  way  that  it  will  be  clear  to  one  who  has  not  had  the 
notion  before,  and  makes  clear  the  use  of  the  words  for 
one  who  has  the  notion  but  has  never  heard  that  partic- 
ular expression  of  it. 

(a)  Example  of  Expressing  a  Concept 

Now,  take  notice  first,  that  the  North,  hating  slavery,  having 
rid  itself  of  it  at  its  own  cost,  longing  for  its  extinction  through- 
out America,  was  unable  until  this  war  to  touch  slavery  directly. 
The  North  could  only  contend  against  the  slave  policy — not  di- 
rectly against  slavery.  Why?  Because  slavery  was  not  the 
creature  of  national  jurisprudence,  but  of  State  law,  and  sub- 
ject only  to  State  jurisdiction.     A  direct  act  on  the  part  of  the 


I 
I 


GENERAL  IDEAS  OR  CONCEPTS  217 

North  to  abolish  slavery  would  have  been  revolutionary.  (A 
voice:  "We  do  not  understand  you.")  You  will  understand 
me  before  I  have  done  with  you  to-night.  (Cheers)  Such  an  at- 
tack would  have  been  a  violation  of  the  fundamental  principle 
of  State's  rights. 

This  peculiar  structure  of  our  Government  is  not  so  unin- 
telligible to  Englishmen  as  you  might  think.  It  is  only  taking 
an  English  idea  on  a  large  scale.  We  have  borrowed  it  from 
j^ou.  A  great  many  do  not  understand  how  there  can  be  a  State 
independence  under  a  National  Government.  Now  I  am  not 
closely  acquainted  with  your  affairs,  but  the  Chamberlain  can 
tell  you  if  I  am  wrong,  when  I  say  that  there  belong  to  the  old 
city  of  London  certain  private  rights  that  Parliament  cannot 
meddle  with.  Yet  there  are  elements  in  which  Parliament — 
that  is,  the  will  of  the  nation — is  as  supreme  over  London  as 
over  any  town  or  city  in  the  realm.  Now,  if  there  are  some  things 
which  London  has  kept  for  her  own  judgment  and  will,  and  yet 
others  which  she  has  given  up  to  the  national  will,  you  have 
herein  the  principle  of  the  American  Government — (cheers) — by 
which  local  matters  belong  exclusively  to  the  local  jurisdiction 
and  certain  general  matters  to  the  National  Government. 

1  will  give  you  another  illustration  that  will  bring  it  home 
to  you.  There  is  not  a  street  in  London,  but,  as  soon  as  a  man 
is  inside  his  house  he  may  say,  his  house  is  his  castle.  There  is 
110  law  in  the  realm  which  can  say  to  that  man  how  many  mem- 
bers shall  compose  his  family — how  he  shall  dress  his  children^ 
when  they  shall  get  up  and  when  they  shall  go  to  bed — how 
many  meals  he  shall  have  a  day,  and  of  what  those  meals  shall 
be  constituted.  The  interior  economy  of  the  house  belongs  to  the 
members  of  the  house,  yet  there  are  many  respects  in  which 
every  householder  is  held  in  check  by  common  rights.  They  have 
their  own  interior  and  domestic  economy,  yet  they  share  in  other 
things  which  are  national  and  governmental.  It  may  be  very 
wrong  to  give  children  opium,  but  all  the  doctors  in  London 
cannot  say  to  a  man  that  he  shall  not  drug  his  child.  It  is  his 
business  and  though  it  is  wrong,  it  cannot  be  interfered  with. 
I  will  give  you  another  illustration.  Five  men  form  a  partner- 
ship of  business.  iNow,  that  partnership  represents  the  National 
Government  of  the  I'liited  States;  but  it  has  relation  only  to  cer- 
tain great  commercial  interests  common  to  them  all.  But  each 
of  these  five  men  has  another  sphere — his  family — and  in  that 
sphere  the  man  may  be  a  drunkard,  a  gambler,  a  lecherous  and 
indecent  man,  but  the  firm  cannot  meddle  with  his  morals.  It 
cannot  touch  anything  except  business  interests  which  belong  to 
the  firm.    Now,  our  States  come  together  on  this  doctrine — that 


218  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

each  State,  in  respect  to  those  rights  and  institutions  that  were 
locally  peculiar  to  it,  was  to  have  undivided  sovereignty  over  its 
own  affairs ;  but  that  all  those  powers,  such  as  taxes,  wars,  trea- 
ties of  peace,  which  belong  not  only  to  one  State  but  also  in  com- 
mon to  all  States,  went  into  the  General  Government.  The  Gen- 
eral Government  never  had  the  power — the  power  was  never  del- 
egated to  it — to  meddle  with  the  interior  and  domestic  economy 
of  the  States,  and  it  never  could  be  done.  You  will  ask  what  are 
we  doing  it  for  now  ?  I  will  tell  you  in  due  time.  Have  I  made 
that  point  plain  ?   ( Cheers ) 

4.    Methods  of  Making  Concepts  Clear  to  Others 

A  study  of  the  illustration  concerning  the  word  ''util- 
ity" and  the  Beecher  exposition  just  quoted  may  give  a 
basis  for  listing  the  more  important  ways  of  making  a 
concept  clear  to  others. 

1.  The  specific  illustration,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  is 
the  most  effective  means  of  making  the  general  concept 
clear  to  others.  The  specific  illustration  used  must  have 
two  features,  however,  if  it  is  to  carry  with  it  a  grasp  of 
the  general  notion. 

(a)  It  must  be  familiar  to  the  audience.  In  the  extract 
from  Beecher  there  are  three  specific  illustrations  of  the 
general  principle  which  Beecher  has  in  mind — the  possi- 
bility of  local  authority  separate  from  general  authority. 
In  the  one  case  the  local  independence  takes  the  form  of 
municipal  privileges  of  London,  in  another  it  reveals  it- 
self as  household  rights  in  contradistinction  to  municipal 
laws,  and  the  third  shows  a  separation  of  business  respon- 
sibility and  private,  moral  responsibility.  A  grasp  of 
these  illustrations  makes  easy  a  grasp  of  the  idea  of 
state 's  rights.  At  least  one,  and  possibly  two  or  all  three, 
of  these  specific  instances  must  have  been  familiar  to  per- 
sons in  the  audience. 

(b)  The  instance  must  have  the  points  essential  to  the 
concept  which  is  being  expressed,  though  still  possessing 


GENERAL  IDEAS  OR  CONCEPTS  219 

its  individual  points  of  difference.  Here,  each  instance 
given  was  different  in  peculiar  respects  from  the  slavery 
rights  of  states  in  America,  but  each  had  this  essential 
point,  that  a  member  of  a  larger  group  is  restricted  in  cer- 
tain respects  because  of  the  authority  of  the  group  over 
its  members,  but  he  may  retain  certain  peculiar  rights 
which  the  group  cannot  alter  or  diminish. 

2.  The  direct  enumeration  of  all  the  essential  charac- 
teristics ivhich  make  up  the  concept  in  terms  familiar  to 
the  audience,  will  often  be  the  best  way  to  make  the 
notion  clear.  Notice  the  manner  in  which  the  apostle  im- 
presses, upon  the  Corinthians,  his  idea  of  the  abstract 
quality  of  charity  (love)  as  a  Christian  virtue. 

Though  I  speak  v/ith  the  tongues  of  men  and  angels  and  have 
not  charity,  I  am  become  as  a  sounding  brass  and  a  tinkling  cym- 
bal. And  though  I  have  the  gift  of  prophecy  and  understand  all 
mysteries  and  have  all  knowledge,  and  though  I  have  all  faith 
so  that  I  could  remove  mountains  yet  have  not  charity,  I  am 
nothing.  And  though  I  bestow  all  my  goods  to  feed  the  poor,  and 
though  I  give  my  body  to  be  burned  and  have  not  charity,  it 
profiteth  me  nothing. 

Charity  suffereth  long  and  is  kind ;  charity  envieth  not ;  char- 
ity vaunteth  not  itself,  is  not  puffed  up,  doth  not  behave  itself 
unseemly,  seeketh  not  her  own,  is  not  easily  provoked,  thinketh 
no  evil;  rejoiceth  not  in  iniquity  but  rejoiceth  in  the  truth; 
beareth  all  things,  believeth  all  things,  hopeth  all  things,  en- 
dureth  all  things. 

Charity  never  faileth;  but  whether  there  be  prophecies,  they 
shall  fail;  whether  there  be  tongues,  they  shall  cease;  whether 
there  be  knowledge,  it  shall  pass  away.  For  we  know  in  part  and 
we  prophecy  in  part.  But  when  that  which  is  perfect  is  come, 
that  which  is  in  part  shall  be  done  away.  When  I  was  a  child, 
I  spake  as  a  child,  I  understood  as  a  child,  I  thought  as  a  child ; 
but  when  I  became  a  man,  I  put  away  childish  things.  For  now 
we  see  as  through  a  glass,  darkly;  but  then,  face  to  face;  now 
I  know  in  part ;  but  then  shall  I  know  even  as  I  am  known. 

And  now  abideth  faith,  hope,  charity — these  three ;  but  the 
greatest  of  these  is  charity. 


220  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(a)  Contrasting  opposite  qualities  with  those  enumer- 
ated often  help  to  make  the  positive  enumerations  more 
clear.  Notice  in  the  passage  above,  how  the  permanent, 
abiding  quality  of  love  is  made  clear  by  contrast  with 
the  temporary  and  partial  nature  of  prophecy  and  knowl- 
edge. In  the  second  paragraph,  long  suffering  is  men- 
tioned at  the  beginning  and  end  while  in  the  middle  it  is 
brought  out  by  an  enumeration  of  opposite  characteris- 
tics. In  the  last  two  paragraphs,  again,  the  permanence 
of  charity  (or  love,  as  the  revised  version  of  the  Bible  has 
it)  is  brought  out  by  contrast.  In  Lesson  1,  the  exposi- 
tion of  the  notion  of  tact  depends  on  enumeration  and 
contrasted  enumeration. 

3.  A  careful  discrimination  between  the  notion  and 
another  very  similar  notion  helps  to  make  it  clear.  This 
method  is  often  found  in  legal  addresses,  especially  the 
judge's  charge  to  the  jury.  We  can  imagine  a  judge  say- 
ing the  following : 

You  have  heard  the  matron  of  the  prison  testify  that  this 
nurse,  accused  of  murdering  her  employer,  said  that  she  did  in- 
deed give  Mr.  A —  an  overdose  of  strychnine  on  the  night  of 
A^piil  the  twelfth,  in  consequence  of  which  he  died.  The  prose- 
cuting attorney  has  been  unable  to  obtain  a  more  complete  state- 
ment from  the  accused,  though  she  acknowledges  all  the  matron 
says  and  furthermore  admits  that  she  once  stole  money  from  her 
employer. 

Now  the  prosecuting  attorney  contends  that  the  statement  to 
the  matron  is  a  confession  of  guilt — the  indictment  being  for 
murder  in  the  first  degree.  It  will  be  necessary  for  me  to  in- 
struct you  concerning  the  nature  of  a  confession  of  guilt,  for  if 
you  judge  this  to  have  been  such  a  confession,  then  you  must 
render  a  verdict  of  guilty. 

If  a  person  were  to  go  to  a  store  and  take  away  a  package 
which  did  not  belong  to  him,  under  the  impression  that  he  had  a 
right  to  take  it  because  a  third  person  had  bought  it  and  left  it 
on  the  counter  for  him,  then  the  acknowledgment  of  taking  the 
package  is  not  a  confession  of  guilt  to  the  charge  of  theft.  To 
confess  theft,  the  accused  must  not  only  acknowledge  the  fact  of 


GENERAL  IDEAS  OR  CONCEPTS  221 

taking  the  package  but  also  the  intent  to  take  something  to  which 
he  was  not  entitled.  What  the  accused  in  such  a  case  makes,  is 
not  a  confession  but  an  admission.  A  confession  in  criminal  law 
is  a  statement  freely  made  which  acknowledges!  deed  and  intent 
sufficient  to  establish  guilt;  but  an  admission  is  a  statement  of 
fact  which  may  or  may  not  incriminate  the  maker  in  relation 
to  the  charge  mentioned  in  the  indictment. 

The  admission  in  this  particular  case  makes  it  unnecessary  for 
the  prosecutor  to  bring  forth  further  evidence  to  prove  that  the 
overdose  was  administered  by  the  accused;* but  to  convict  the 
accused  of  murder  in  the  first  degree,  he  must  convince  you  be- 
yond a  reasonable  doubt  that  when  she  administered  the  strych- 
nine she  fully  intended  to  kill  her  employer  and  she  succeeded 
in  carrying  out  her  intention. 

Furthermore,  the  confession  that  she  stole  money  from  her  em- 
ployer, though  a  i-eal  confession  of  theft,  does  not  constitute 
(together  with  the  other  admission)  a  confession  of  guilt  when 
the  indictment  is  for  murder.  Of  course  it  does  tend  to  break 
down  her  moral  reputation ;  but  it  does  not  change  an  admission 
of  fact  to  a  confession  of  guilt.  A  confession  is  a  voluntary  and 
complete  acknowledgment  of  all  that  constitutes  the  crime  stated 
in  the  indictment. 

5.  Thoroughness  in  the  Expression  of  a  Concept 

A  general  notion  is  fully  expressed  when  two  things 
have  been  accomplished :  (1)  When  it  has  been  identi- 
fied as  a  member  of  some  larger  or  broader  class  which 
is  familiar  to  the  audience,  (2)  when  its  own,  essential, 
and  peculiar  characteristics  have  been  brought  out.  It 
will  be  noticed,  in  the  example  of  the  judge  charging  the 
jury,  the  confession  is  identified  as  belonging  to  a  greater 
class  of  things,  namely,  statements  of  any  sort  made  by 
an  accused  person.  Its  own  peculiar  characteristics, 
which  differentiate  it  from  others  of  the  general  group, 
were  then  enumerated  and  made  clear.  They  were  the 
voluntary  character  of  the  statement,  without  the  influ- 
ence of  fear  or  hope,  the  acknowledgment  of  fact,  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  intent,  and  the  complete  covering  of  all 
the  definition  of  the  crime  stated  in  the  indictment.    In 


I 


222  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

most  cases,  the  thorough  listing  of  all  the  essential  chai 
acteristics  of  the  general  notion  is  sufficient  to  make  li 
clear,  but  the  thorough  method  calls  also  for  the  location 
in  a  greater  class. 

6.  Definition 

The  most  compact  and  economical  means  of  represent- 
ing a  concept  completely,  is  the  logical  definition.  Ob- 
serve that  in  the  following  definitions  the  greater  class  ir, 
expressed  in  italics  and  the  essential  features  which  dif- 
ferentiate the  notion  from  others  of  the  class,  in  roman 
type. 

1.  The  protective  tariff  is  a  tax  on  imports,  designed  to  raise 
the  market  price  on  foreign  goods  brought  into  this  country,  in 
order  to  give  American  producers  a  competitive  advantage. 

2.  A  trust  is  a  comhination  of  tlie  means  of  production  in  a 
certain  field  sufficiently  powerful  to  control  enough  of  the  output 
in  that  field  to  enable  it  to  regulate,  in  a  monopolistic  manner, 
the  prices  of  the  commodities  it  produces. 

3.  A  shipping  subsidy  is  a  grant  of  money  by  the  government 
to  shipowners,  made  with  the  general  expectation  of  fostering  the 
shipping  industry  and  not  made  because  of  specific  services  to  be 
rendered  in  return. 

4.  Economics  is  the  study  which  seeks  to  discover  the  origin 
and  nature  of  human  wants  and  to  formulate  the  laws  according 
to  which  men  in  organized  society  satisfy  those  wants. 

5.  State's  rights  is  a  principle  in  government  whereby  a  state, 
though  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  national  government  in 
matters  of  national  welfare,  is  recognized  as  having  its  own  au- 
thority over  state  policies  and  institutions. 

It  can  be  seen  that  a  good,  logical  definition  contains  a 
compact  mass  of  matter.  But  its  very  compactness,  the 
thorough  covering  of  the  whole  ground  in  a  small  com- 
pass, renders  it  of  little  service  as  a  means  of  expressing 
a  notion  to  one  who  is  not  already  fairly  acquainted  with 
it.  The  great  value  of  the  definition  is  to  sum  up  in  con- 
venient form  and  to  drive  home  a  notion  already  made 


GENERAL  IDEAS  OR  CONCEPTS  223 

clear  by  methods  we  have  described.  Notice  that  in  the 
judge's  charge,  on  page  220  the  definition  is  the  last 
thing  given.  It  comes  at  the  end  of  a  fairly  lengthy  expo- 
sition. Would  this  definition  have  given  much  enlighten- 
ment to  one  in  need  of  its  information  if  it  had  not  been 
preceded  by  the  illustrations  and  discriminations?  But 
on  the  other  hand,  coming  at  the  end,  does  it  not  gather 
together  in  excellent  shape  for  ready  reference,  a  notion 
made  clear  by  the  more  expansive  method  of  expression? 
Often  we  see  text -books  which  begin  their  treatment  of 
subjects  with  definitions,  the  meanings  of  which  are  grad- 
ually unfolded  by  illustrations.  The  better  method  is  to 
begin  with  the  specific  cases — enumeration  and  contrast, 
and  work  on  till  the  notion  takes  shape  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader  or  listener.  Then  seal  it  with  a  proper  definition. 
Our  advice,  therefore,  is  to  employ  definition,  not  so  much 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  information,  but  rather  to 
record  your  notion  in  crisp  and  accurate  manner  for 
ready  reference. 

7.  Importance  of  Skill  in  Making  Concepts  Clear 

We  have  already  intimated  that  it  is  very  necessary  f  or 
a  speaker  to  be  able  to  re-create  clear  images ;  it  is  just 
as  important  for  him  to  convey  his  general  notions  to 
others.  In  a  real  speech  we  are  not  likely  to  find  images 
and  only  images,  or  concepts  and  only  concepts,  but  these 
and  other  things  which  the  speaker  has  in  mind  come 
forth  intermingled.  Though  we  discussed  the  expression 
of  images  in  a  separate  lesson,  that  is  no  reason  for  as- 
suming that  a  speech  will  be  devoted  to  this  element  of 
expression  alone.  So  also  with  the  concept.  Use  it  where 
it  is  necessary,  when  it  forms  part  of  your  message  and  is 
of  service,  and  in  doing  so,  follow  the  method  outlined  in 
this  lesson.    As  a  rule,  a  speaker  is  primarily  interested 


224  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

in  images  and  general  ideas  because  thej^  are  the  informa- 
tion which  the  audience  must  have  as  the  basis  for  some 
argument  or  appeal.  Unless  the  audience  has  some  facts 
in  mind  (particular  and  general  truths)  it  mil  not  be  able 
to  follow  an  argument.  Furthermore,  the  clearer  the  pres- 
entation of  the  facts  and  concepts,  the  easier  it  is  to  fol- 
low the  argument,  while  a  very  forceful  presentation  of 
these  basic  things  often  makes  further  argument  unnec- 
essary. Truth,  clearly  apprehended,  argues  for  itself  and 
makes  its  o^\ti  appeal.  For  instance,  a  well-kno^vn  law- 
yer argued  in  favor  of  regulating  the  stock  exchange  so  as 
to  do  away  with  certain  evils.  So  clearly  did  he  repre- 
sent the  evils  and  so  simple  was  the  exposition  of  his  con- 
cept of  what  a  stock  exchange  ought  to  be  that  after  he 
had  presented  his  facts  and  notions,  but  few  in  the  au- 
dience needed  any  argument  to  make  them  accept  the  kind 
of  remedy  which  he  suggested. 

8.  Exposition  and  a  Particular  Audience 

If  all  the  people  in  an  audience  are  as  well-informed  as 
you  on  the  subject  and  understand  the  terms  you  employ, 
the  problem  of  expressing  your  concept  reduces  itself  to 
a  choice  of  the  best  words.  Under  such  an  ideal  condi- 
tion the  various  devices  described  in  this  lesson  would  not 
be  necessary.  These  methods  must  be  used  because  of 
differences  between  people,  differences  in  mental  stock 
and  vocabulary.  The  speaker  has  a  concept  and  some  in 
the  audience  have  never  formed  it.  But  they  have  other 
ideas  which  can  be  called  forth  to  help  them  receive  the 
new  notion.  Our  illustrations,  comparisons,  and  con- 
trasts are  devices  whereby  the  speaker  seeks  to  make  the 
minds  of  the  hearers  take  in  new  ideas  because  of  the 
power  which  they  have  through  the  po.ssession  of  other 
similar  ideas.    Therefore,  the  problem  for  the  speaker  is, 


GENERAL  IDEAS  OR  CONCEPTS  225 

first,  to  determine  when  a  particular  audience  needs  to 
have  the  concept  made  clear  and,  second,  what  method  of 
elucidation  is  best  from  the  standpoint  of  what  they  al- 
ready know.  It  is  unwise  to  over-explain,  but  on  the 
other  hand  the  speaker  should  not  run  the  risk  of  being 
misunderstood.  Obviously,  one  audience  will  appreciate 
a  certain  kind  of  illustration  while  another  audience  will 
be  able  to  understand  quite  a  different  parallel.  Notice 
that  Beecher,  talking  to  a  mixed  audience,  gave  three  par- 
allels— one  to  appeal  to  those  acquainted  with  govern- 
mental affairs,  one  to  appeal  to  business  men,  and  another 
to  educate  the  general  citizen. 

It  is  very  important  when  using  words  which  express 
essential  concepts  and  while  expounding  a  concept  at 
length,  to  watch  the  audience  for  any  indications  of  im- 
patience, on  the  one  hand,  or  lack  of  understanding,  on 
the  other.  This  is  a  comparatively  easy  task,  for  people 
very  clearly  give  signs  of  intelligent  grasp,  misunder- 
standing, or  impatience.  These  signs  should  guide  the 
speaker  in  the  matter  of  further  exposition.  We  may 
sum  up  by  saying,  ''Watch  your  audience  and  try  to  make 
the  new  thing  clear  by  illustrations  of  like,  opposite,  or 
related  things  which  are  familiar." 

Assignment  of  Work 


Tlic  written  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  vour  notebook. 


First  Day. — Read  the  lesson  through  a  second  time  and  then 
write  your  own  definition  of  "image"  and  of  "concept." 
Then  read  the  lesson  again.    Read  also  Lesson  9. 

Second  Bay. — Take  the  word  "statesman"  and  tabulate  the  es- 
sential characteristics  a  man  must  have  to  be  classed  as  a 
statesman.    A  good  method  is  to  select  ten  men  who  are,  in 


226  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

your  estimation,  statesmen.  List  them.  Then  enumerate, 
in  two  columns,  their  characteristics.  In  the  first,  put  indi- 
vidual and  non-essential  characteristics;  in  the  second,  put 
characteristics  essential  to  the  concept  "statesman."  For 
example : 

Non-Essential        Essential 
Alexander  Hamilton  

Thomas  Jefferson  


Third  Day. — Outline  and  develop  orally  a  eulogy  of  some  con- 
temporary statesman  Avhom  you  admire  and,  in  the  course 
of  your  eulogy,  make  clear  your  concept  of  ' '  statesman ' '  and 
show  how  the  particular  person  is  entitled  to  be  included 
in  the  class.  (If  you  wish,  substitute  ''genius,"  "artist," 
* '  musician, ' '  or  any  other  concept  the  working  out  of  which 
will  interest  you.) 

Fourth  Day. — Write  down  a  clear  presentation  of  one  of  the 
processes  with  which  you  come  in  contact  in  your  work. 

Fifth  Day. — Write  definitions  of  three  of  the  following  expres- 
sions and  give  presentations  of  the  concepts,  the  last  sen- 
tences of  which  will  be  the  definitions  you  have  formulated : 
(1)  Avarice;  (2)  humility;  (3)  business  morality;  (4) 
fountain  pen;  (5)  neutrality;  (6)  camera;  (7)  patriotism; 
(8)  any  process  with  which  you  are  familiar. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 


These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
liis  knowhnlge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  siififjesticc  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  Did  you  ever  hear  a  speaker  use  persistently  a  word 
vvhicli  was  unfamiliar  to  you  ?  What  effect  did  it  ha  /e  on  you  1 
How  could  the  evil  have  been  remedied? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  "family  likeness"  when  that  expres- 
sion is  used  in  connection  with  the  individuals  which  go  to  make 
up  a  group? 

3.  What  is  your  definition  of  "concept"?  ^ 

4.  Name  the  three  classes  of  general  ideas  classified  in  this"^ 
lesson.  Could  you  add  one  or  more  classes  which  are  not  included 

in  those  three? 

5.  In  the  discussion  of  "utility,"  is  the  definition  given 
first  or  last?    What  is  the  advantage  or  disadvantage  of  giving 

a  definition  first  ?  of  givingjtj.ast  ?  ^ 

6.  What  is  meant  by  "specific  illustration"  as  a  means  of 
making  a  general  notion  clear  ?  What  are  the  necessary  features 
of  such  an  illustration? 


7.  After  reading  the  exposition  of  the  idea  "charity"  as 
given  by  Paul,  formulate  your  own  definition  of  ' '  charity. ' ' 

8,  What  purpose  does  contrast  serve  in  making  a  concept 
clear  ? 


9.  Besides  concrete  illustration  and  enumeration  of  essen- 
tial characteristics,  what  other  device  is  of  service  to  make  a 
concept  clear  ? 

10.  What  two  things  must  be  cared  for  in  an  exposition 
in  order  that  the  concept  should  be  fully  expressed  ? 

11.  Why    has  definition    been  called  "exposition    boiledi/ 
down"? 

227 


228  TEST  QUESTIONS 

12.  What  are  the  essential  features  of  a  good,  logical  defi-v^' 
nition  1 

13.  What  is  the  value  of  clear  exposition  to  the  maker  of  X 
general  speeches? 

14.  Sum  up  the  advice  concerning  the  adaptation  of  expo-  ^^ 
sition  to  a  particular  audience. 

15.  Give  half  a  dozen  examples  of  concepts  in  each  of  the 
three  groups. 

16.  In  which  group  do  "chemistry,"  "eloquence,"  "sub- 
marine," and  "utility"  belong! 

17.  Where  does  the  subject-matter  of  this  lesson  fall  in  the 
general  outline  or  plan  of  this  Public  Speaking  Course  ? 


LESSON  13 

ARGUMENTS  AND  THEIR  PRESENTATION 

Tims  far  we  have  discussed  the  presentation  of  images 
and  concepts  so  that  the  audience  may  be  put  in  posses- 
sion of  them  just  as  they  exist  in  the  mind  of  tlie  speaker. 
Such  expressional  efforts  are  concerned  with  re-creation 
— the  re-creation  of  particuhir  mental  images  or  general 
notions  which  the  speakerjias.  But  there  is  a  possibility 
that  these  images  and  concepts  or  combinations  of  them 
as  held  by  the  speaker  may  be  errors  or  perversions  of 
the  truth.  A  very  interesting  book  has  been  written  by 
Professor  Miinsterberg,  of  Harvard  University,  in  which 
he  gives  many  instances  of  people  in  court  who  testified 
to  certain  facts  and  described  them  clearly,  believing 
them  to  be  true,  although  later  they  were  shown  to  be 
false.  In  other  words,  it  is  one  thing  to  represent  an 
image  or  idea  clearly  and  quite  another  to  insure  its 
truth.  The  promoter,  selling  mining  stock,  may  paint  a 
vivid  picture  of  extensive  and  successful  operations,  but 
he  may  not  be  able  to  demonstrate  the  actual  existence 
of  such  a  mine  anywhere  save  in  his  own  fertile  imagina- 
tion. Besides  particular  and  general  ideas,  we  also  form 
opinions  or  judgments  which  likewise  may  be  clearly 
presented,  but  which  also  will  need  defense  as  to  truth 
and  acceptability. 

If  you  were  to  paint  a  word  picture  of  a  wonderful 
mine  and  your  audience  were  to  accept  it  as  existing  just 
as  you  describe  it,  there  would  be  no  need  for  you  to 
take  precautions  to  g-uarantee  the  actual  existence  of  the 
mine.  If  you  were  to  expound  the  process  of  ore  extrac- 
229 


230  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

tion  used  in  the  mine  and  it  were  accepted  as  a  true  ex- 
position, there  would  be  no  need  of  demonstration.  If 
you  were  to  express  the  opinion  that  such  a  mine  operated 
in  such  a  manner  would  be  a  good  enterprise  in  which 
to  invest  and  the  audience  were  to  understand  and  adopt 
the  opinion,  there  would  be  no  practical  advantage  in 
showing  them  just  wdiy  the  opinion  is  a  justifiable  one. 
But  often  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  present  but  also  to 
justify  and  defend.  Such  an  operation  we  call  an  arg-u- 
ment.  Thus  far  we  have  discussed  the  presentation  of 
percepts  and  concepts;  before  taking  up  the  details  of 
argumentation,  we  shall  treat  the  clear  presentation  of 
judgments. 

1.  A  Judgment  and  its  Statement 

Our  experiences  throughout  life  lead  us  to  link  things 
together  in  various  relations.  Thus  we  say,  ''Apples  are 
sweet,"  placing  apples  in  a  class  relation  with  all  other 
sw^eet  things.  We  have  our  ideas  of  what  things  are 
good,  bad,  or  indifferent.  We  may  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  "The  tariff  is  a  benefit  to  the  country."  This 
means  that  w^e  deliberately  place  the  tariff  among  the 
things  good  for  our  country.  Such  a  conclusion  is  a 
judgment.  A  judgment  always  includes  two  or  more 
things  and  a  definite  relation  between  them.  It  is  a  belief 
which  we  form  deliberately;  it  is  an  opinion.  When 
stated,  such  a  belief,  opinion,  or  judgment  always  takes 
the  form  of  a  proposition.  The  following  are  typical 
propositions : 

1.  Labor  unions  are  beneficial  to  the  community  as  a 
whole. 

2.  A  college  education  is  of  value  as  a  preparation  for 
business. 

3.  Private  owncrshi])  of  land  is  justifiable. 


ARGUMENTS  AND  PRESENTATION  231 

4.  Political  parties  are  necessary  in  a  democracy. 

5.  John  Smith  is  an  honest  man. 

Notice  that  between  things  a  relationship  is  stated 
which  may  or  may  not  turn  out  to  exist.  Sometimes  the 
relationship  is  stated  as  one  which  ought  to  exist,  thus : 

1 .  The  United  States  should  grant  self-government  to 
the  Filipinos. 

2.  Railroads  should  be  required  to  publish  annual  re- 
ports of  the  physical  value  of  their  property. 

3.  The  President  of  the  United  States  should  b(; 
elected  for  a  term  of  six  years  and  be  ineligible  for  a 
second  nomination. 

In  each  of  these  cases,  the  expresser  of  the  proposition 
has  one  thing  clearly  in  mind  (say,  labor  unions)  and 
another  (things  beneficial  to  the  community)  and  he 
affirms  a  close  relationship.  The  student  might  here  say 
that  when  one  forms  a  concept,  he  also  relates  a  number 
of  things  so  as  to  come  to  a  grasp  of  their  common  or 
class  features.  That  is  indeed  true,  but  the  total  product 
— the  concept  or  general  notion — is  built  up  gradually 
and  almost  unconsciously;  certainly  the  thinker  is  not 
aware  of  the  steps.  Many,  many  experiences  with  par- 
ticular apples  of  various  sizes,  shapes,  colors,  and  flavors 
make  us  gradually  get  a  notion  of  what  constitutes  apples 
in  general.  In  the  case  of  the  judgment,  however,  the 
related  thoughts  are  constantly  kept  in  mind,  each  sep- 
arate from  the  other  and  compared.  We  select  one 
notion  (as  tariff)  and  another  (national  welfare)  and, 
after  carefully  inspecting  them,  we  say  that  they  are  or 
are  not  related  thus  and  so ;  we  form  the  judginent  delib- 
erately and  state  the  result  in  the  form  of  a  proposition. 

These  propositions  may  record  relationships  which  do 
exist,  have  existed,  or  will  or  should  exist  between  two 
things.  If  the  proposition  clearly  presents  the  relation- 
ship which  the  speaker  has  in  mind,  then  we  say  that 


232  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

the  opinion  has  been  clearly  expressed.  ^Tiether  we 
accept  it  or  not,  if  we  understand  it,  the  expression  has 
been  clear. 

If  the  speaker  feels  that  his  opinion  is  not  understood, 
how  shall  he  elaborate  its  plain  statement  so  as  to  make 
it  clear  ?  In  such  a  case,  the  amplification  will  consist  of 
a  proper  exposition  of  the  notions  included  in  the  prop- 
osition. For  instance,  "tariff"  is  taken  up  and  pre- 
sented according  to  the  rules  already  laid  down  for  the 
expression  of  concepts.  The  same  is  done  with  "national 
welfare."  If  one  of  the  terms  of  the  proposition  is  par- 
ticular and  not  general,  present  it  like  any  other  image. 
After  the  speaker  has  obtained  a  clear  grasp  of  his  prop- 
osition, the  next  step  is  to  verify  it  so  that  the  audienc(^ 
will  accept  it  because  they  see  that  the  steps  by  which  it 
was  reached  were  reasonable  steps. 

2.  Why    Opinions    Need    Verification    or 
Demonstration 

Our  minds  are  filled  with  a  multitude  of  beliefs  which 
have  come  to  us  through  various  channels.  Some  of  them 
are  very  trustworthy  because  we  have  made  them  care- 
fully after  investigating  all  the  related  facts.  But  others 
are  unreliable,  having  grown  up  through  prejudice  or 
haphazard  misinformation.  For  instance,  a  mechanic 
can  tell  you  just  what  style  of  machine  is  best  for  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  work.  His  judgment  here  is  good ;  he  has 
had  direct  experience  with  machines ;  he  has  tested  all 
the  parts  and  has  no  more  reason  to  lean  in  one  direction 
in  his  fiual  judgment  than  in  another.  You  could  not 
fool  him  al)out  machines  and  if  he  expressed  the  proposi- 
tion, "Machine  B  is  better  than  machine  A,"  he  could 
give  good  and  sufficient  reasons  for  it.  Yet  that  same 
man,  with  next  to  no  trustworthy  knowledge  of  politics, 


ARGIT:\IEXT8  and  PRESENTATIOX  233 

government,  or  economics  will  firmly  liokl  to  the  belief 
that  the  Republican  Party  is  l)etter  than  the  Democratic, 
or  vice  versa.  He  may  have  the  merest  hearsay  informa- 
tion about  the  parties,  yet  he  has  formed  an  opinion 
which  he  does  not  hesitate  to  put  forth  as  a  projjosition. 
Ai^ain,  we  often  say,  "I  believe  this  or  that  man  is  a 
fraud,"  when  we  have  no  foundation  for  the  opinion 
beyond  some  peculiarity  in  his  speech  or  appearance. 
In  short,  opinions  which  we  hold  and  act  upon  are  of 
varying  degrees  of  trustworthiness.  Whenever  a  speaker 
feels  that  his  opinion  is  not  accepted  by  his  hearers  or 
when  he  wishes  them  to  accept  an  opinion  which  is 
acceptable  only  when  known  "from  the  ground  up,"  he 
undertakes  to  verify  all  that  led  to  his  conclusions;  he 
undertakes  to  establish  his  opinions  by  argnment. 

3.  SouECEs  OF  Opinions  Which  Should  be  Tested. 

There  are  two  general  sources  of  material  from  which 
we  make  our  beliefs  :  (1)  directly  observed  facts  and  (2) 
inferences  or  actions  of  the  mind.  Let  us  illustrate. 
Suppose  you  and  I  are  in  a  room  and,  while  you  are  at 
the  table  writing,  I  look  out  the  window  and  see  that  the 
ground  is  wet.  I  say  to  you,  "The  ground  is  wet."  I 
am  reporting  a  fact,  something  with  which  I  come  into 
very  direct  contact  and  which  I  know,  because  my  eyes 
see  it.  Or  again,  let  us  suppose  that  it  is  dark  and  I 
cannot  see  well,  but  I  put  my  hand  out  on  the  sill  and 
say,  "The  sill  is  wet."  Again  I  report  a  fact,  for  my 
hands  touch  the  water  and  I  trust  my  sense  of  touch  as 
well  as  my  sense  of  sight.  Anything  which  comes  to  me 
through  the  report  of  my  senses  I  believe  exists  and  I 
accept  as  a  fact.  Now  we  can  define  a  fact  as  knowledge 
luhich  a  normal  person  gains  through  the  use  of  normal 
sense  organs  under  favorable  conditions  for  observation. 

Sui)pose,  after  saying  to  you,  "The  ground  is  wet," 


234  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

I  also  say,  "Tlie  sky  is  clear."  You  accept  my  reports 
and  say,  "Then,  it  has  been  raining."  Here  is  a  belief 
which  5^ou  express  and  which  I  also  accept,  though  neither 
of  us  directly  observed  the  rain  as  it  fell  and  as  it  ceased 
to  iail.  So  often  have  w^e  seen  tlie  ground  wet  after 
rain  that  the  wet  ground  leads  us  to  infer  that  it  has  been 
raining.  In  this  case,  a  fact  is  observed  and  its  cause 
inferred.  Now  I  hold  the  belief  that  it  has  been  raining 
just  as  well  as  I  hold  the  belief  that  the  ground  is  wet; 
one  opinion  is  based  on  fact  and  the  other  is  based  on 
inference. 

Let  us  give  yet  another  illustration.  A  traveler  on  a 
lonely  road  finds  a  man  lying  dead  with  a  bullet-hole  in 
his  head  and  a  revolver  with  one  chamber  empty  by  his 
side.  He  truly  accepts  these  facts  which  he  gets  by 
observation,  but  he  also  believes  that  the  man  committed 
suicide. 

Opinions  rest  upon  two  things,  observed  facts  and 
inferences  of  the  mind.  If  these  sources  are  not  drawn 
on  carefully  and  with  proper  safeguards,  our  opinions 
are  likely  to  be  untrustworthy.  A  critical  listener,  to 
whom  we  are  addressing  an  argument,  will  not  accept 
our  propositions  unless  we  make  it  clear  that  the  sources 
were  consulted  thoroughly  and  discreetly.  But,  you 
might  say,  "How  could  anyone  be  mistaken  about  a 
fact?"  Very  easily,  through  faulty  observation.  Often, 
when  the  light  is  poor  we  think  we  see  things  which  do 
not  exist  or  which  exist  in  a  very  different  character 
under  good  illumination.  So,  also,  inferences  may  be 
fallacious.  In  the  cas(>  of  the  rain  inference  just  given, 
an  error  might  exist,  for  i lie  ground  could  be  wet  be- 
cause someone  sprinkled  it,  just  as  well  as  it  could  be 
wet  from  rain.  The  suicide  inference  would  have  been 
M  wrong  one  if  tlu'  <l(\nd  man  had  been  murdered.  An 
argument,   to   convince,  must  clearly  present   the   facts 


ARGrMKNTS  AXl)   PRESENTATION  235 

and  inforoiiccs  wliieli  lead  to  tlio  proposition  to  be  proved, 
and  it  must  sliow  that  tbey  are  all  acceptable  so  far  as 
careful  investigation  can  make  tbeni.  Of  course,  we  all 
know  that  a  popular  man  can  often  get  bis  opinion 
accepted  merely  because  the  crowd  likes  liim  and  will 
agree  witli  anything  he  says,  or  an  unscrupulous  man 
may  play  upon  prejudices  so  as  to  get  an  opinion 
accepted  without  rigorous  demonstration;  but  we  wish 
to  show  how  a  proposition  may  be  made  acceptable  on  its 
own  merits  or  because  it  is  the  r-easonable  conclusion  to 
be  drawn  from  trustworthy  facts  and  inferences. 

4.  H&w  AN  Opinion  is  Built  Up 

Let  us  suppose  that  as  an  American,  reading  the  vari- 
ous papers  and  discussing  current  topics,  you  had  formed 
an  opinion  of  the  Irish  Home  Rule  situation  as  it  loomed 
up  in  the  early  part  of  1914.  A  bill  giving  Ireland  home 
rule  was  presented  to  Parliament,  whereupon  the  influ- 
ential people  in  Ulster,  a  northern  county  of  Ireland, 
said  that  if  such  a  bill  were  passed,  Ulster  preferred  to  be 
retained  under  the  British  rule  and  not  included  in  the 
Irish  government,  as  provided  for  in  the  bill.  After 
gathering  all  the  facts  possible,  you  formed  a  number  of 
opinions  somewhat  as  follows  : 

1.  The  interests  of  the  people  of  Ulster  are  more 
bound  up  with  Great  Britain  than  with  the  rest  of  Ire- 
land. 

2.  Under  British  rule  Ulster  has  prospered. 

3.  Under  Irish  rule  her  prosperity  would  be  dimin- 
ished. 

4.  To  include  her  under  a  general  Irish  government 
would  result  in  continued  civil  war. 

Each  of  these  propositions  sums  up  a  particular  field 
of  the  whole  discussion,  and,  if  all  of  them  are  accepted, 


236  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

tliey  in  turn  will  lead  3^ou  to  infer  a  wider  belief  aonie- 
what  as  follows :  It  would  be  to  the  interests  of  Ulstei- 
to  be  exempted  from  the  provisions  of  the  Irish  Honn' 
Rule  Bill. 

Now  if  you  w^ere  to  state  this  as  a  proposition  to  some- 
one else  and  should  want  to  defend  it,  your  first  ste]) 
might  be  to  say  the  proposition  was  a  tenable  one  becaus(\ 
first,  the  interests  of  the  people  of  Ulster  are  more  boun(  I 
up  with  those  of  Great  Britain  than  w^ith  the  rest  of  Ire 
land,  and  so  on  dow^n  through  the  four  reasons. 

But  just  as  your  main  proposition  is  supported  by  th<' 
less  wide  propositions  from  which  it  is  logically  inferred, 
so  each  of  these  in  turn  may  have  still  more  minute  rea 
sons  as  supports.     Taking  item  1  you  might  offer  the 
f  ollow^ing  supports : 

(a)  Eacially  Ulstermen  are  English  and  Scotcli 
rather  than  Irish. 

(b)  In  religion,  Ulstermen  are  Protestant  rather  than 
Catholic  like  the  rest  of  Ireland. 

(c)  In  temperament,  Ulstermen  are  like  the  Scotch 
rather  than  the  other  Irishmen. 

(d)  In  business,  thej^  are  allied  with  the  commercial 
and  manufacturing-  interests  of  Great  Britain  rather 
than  with  the  small  farming  of  the  rest  of  Ireland. 

(e)  Past  history  shows  that  there  has  been  continual 
strife  between  Ulster  and  the  rest  of  Ireland,  while  there 
has  been  sympathy  with  England. 

But  the  further  you  go,  the  more  evident  it  becomes 
that  you  must  offer  some  facts  to  sui)port  your  state- 
ments. To  support  the  notion  that  Ulstermen  are  racially 
different  from  those  of  southern  Ireland  you  say:  "Due 
to  difficulties  wdth  the  people  of  Ireland,  James  I,  in  1610 
sent  over  a  colony  of  English  and  Scotch  settlers  to 
Ulster.  These  people  were  favored  by  the  English 
e-overnment  and  thrived.     But  the  rest  of  Ii-(^lnnd  was 


ARGUMENTS  AND  PRP^SENTATION  287 

I'obellioiis  agahist  tlio  Eiiglisli  g-ovcnmient  and  liated 
the  men  of  Ulster.  Indeed,  in  1641,  six  thousand  of  the 
Ulstermen  were  massacred.  There  was  retaliation  and 
the  consequent  bitterness  kept  the  two  peoples  apart.  A 
comparison  of  names  will  show  that  the  original  blood, 
Scotch  and  English,  predominates  in  Ulster,  different 
from  the  Celtic  blood  in  the  rest  of  Ireland." 

To  support  the  second  statement,  about  religion,  you 
would  have  to  give  the  census  reports  showing  the  great 
predominance  of  Protestants  in  Ulster  and  the  over- 
whelming majority  of  Catholics  in  the  rest  of  Ireland. 
And  so  on  down,  all  inferences  w^ould  be  given  their  fact 
supports.  You  have  not  gotten  to  the  bottom  until  your 
reasons  rest  upon  (1)  competently  observed  facts  and 
(2)  opinions  which  are  generally  accepted.  Even  this 
last  should  be  properly  checked  up  by  observed  facts. 

5.  Example  of  Suppokt 

Note  the  following  brief  argument.  It  might  be  out- 
lined somewhat  as  follows : 

The  United  States  should  grant  Cuba  reciprocity. 

1.  Because  w^e   have  guaranteed  to   establish   a   strong 

government  in  the  islands. 

2.  Because  a  strong  government  can  be  maintained  only 

through  commercial  prosperity. 

3.  Because  reciprocity  will  secure  commercial  prosperity. 

la)  It  will  give  Cuba  a  needed  market  for  sugar. 

4.  Because  our  industries  will  not  suifer  from  this. 

(a)  Our  markets  need  not  only  our  own  supply  of 

'sugar,  but  also  Cuba's  and  more. 

(b)  This  is  true  in  all  industries   as  well  as   the 

sugar  industry. 
This  argument  might  well  be  foUoAved  by  an  altruistic 
and  patriotic  appeal. 


238  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

THE   CUBAN    PROBLEM 
(1903) 

During  an  existence  in  which  it  lias  met  many  crises  and  solved 
many  diplomatic  problems,  the  United  States  has  acquired  a  repu- 
tation for  expediency,  sagacity,  and  integrity.  It  is  now  con- 
sidering a  problem  the  solution  of  which  will  mar  or  strengthen 
that  reputation.  Our  nation  has  assumed  the  responsibility  of 
establishing  peace,  and  inaugurating  a  stable  and  independent 
government  in  the  Island  of  Cuba.  Peace  has  been  established, 
and  independence  has  indeed  been  granted  to  Cuba  ;  but  a  strong 
government  there  has  yet  to  be  organized. 

In  order  to  found  a  solid  government  the  Cubans  must  thrive 
commercially.  The  sugar  trade  is  their  main  source  of  income, 
^lost  of  the  Island's  population  is  engaged  in  the  production 
of  siigar,  and  the  livelihood  of  the  people  is  dependent  upon  the 
profitable  sale  of  sugar.  Hence,  we  look  to  that  industry  for 
Cuba's  commercial  prosperity.  The  present  condition  of  the 
sugar  market,  however,  makes  it  impossible  for  her  dealers  to 
sell  at  all  with  profit.  The  markets  of  the  world,  if  not  con- 
trolled by  home  industries,  protected  by  tariff,  are  controlled  by 
the  great  sugar  "Kartel"  syndicate,  fostered  by  bounties  from 
the  German  government.  Cuba's  merchants  cannot  underbid 
such  powerful  rivals. 

Confronted  with  this  dilemma,  the  Cuban  planters  have  peti- 
tioned Congress  to  grant  reciprocity  to  the  Island.  Without  a 
doubt,  such  a  measure  would  greatly  relieve  Cuba's  financial  dis- 
tress. But  an  objection  to  this  remedy  has  been  raised  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  relieve  Cuba  only  at  the  expense  of  home 
enterprises,  that  any  lowering  of  the  tariff  on  sugar  would  kill 
our  beet  sugar  industry  in  its  infancy.  Let  us  investigate  this 
standpoint.  The  United  States  consumes  about  2,400,000  tons 
of  sugar  per  year.  The  total  sugar  product  of  the  L"'^nited  States. 
Hawaii,  and  Porto  Rico  is  850.000  tons.  So  after  using  all  our 
domestic  supply,  we  yet  need  1,550,000  tons.  Cuba's  output  last 
year  was  850,000  tons.  Thus,  if  we  should  buy  all  her  sugar,  we 
should  still  lack  700,000  tons  per  year.  Surely  a  country  demand- 
ing 700,000  tons  is  ample  field  for  development  for  the  Ix'd 
sugar  industry,  producing  at  present  but  150.000  tons. 

Objecticms  have  been  raised  by  other  industries.  Neverthe- 
less, on  investigation,  it  is  evident  that  what  they  desire  for 
development  far  exceeds  what  they  refjuire.  Beyond  what  is 
honestly  necessary,  we  should  not  consider  ourselves  in  reliev- 
ing Cuba.  AVilh  a  third  of  her  men  dead,  her  women  in  itiourn- 
iiig.   and    liei-  children    orphans.    Cuba    should    truly   excite   our 


ARGUMENTS  AND  PRESENTATION  239 

compassion.  Her  restoration  to  peace  and  liappiness  Avill  mark 
the  noblest  results  of  a  righteous  war.  Her  prosperity  will  l)e 
a  vindication  of  our  national  honor.  Give  Cuba  the  means 
wliereby  she  can  prosper,  and  our  solemn  pledge  will  be  fulfilled. 
The  victory  at  Manila  will  have  received  its  reward,  the  heroes 
of  Santiago  will  not  have  died  in  vain,  and  a  just  Providence 
will  surely  reward  the  United  States  with  its  benediction  of  pros- 
perity and  peace. 

Wliich  of  the  statements  in  this  ar^ment  were  not 
supported  by  facts!  Would  the  argument  have  been 
nu)re  convincing  if  the  facts  liad  been  given? 

6.  Acceptable  Facts 

No  doubt  the  student  can  see  that  if  an  opinion  is  to 
be  demonstrated  "from  the  ground  up,"  the  speaker 
must  present  the  foundational  facts  which  must  ulti- 
mately support  his  whole  superstructure  of  inferences. 
There  nrast  be  no  doubt  about  the  acceptability  of  such 
facts;  consequently  every  precaution  must  be  taken  to 
insure  their  reliability.  We  shall  now  explain  the  most 
important  considerations  which  must  be  kept  in  mind 
w  hen  passing  upon  alleged  facts. 

First,  however,  we  must  modify  our  definition  of  fact 
somewhat.  There  are  not  only  physical  facts,  such  as 
Ave  have  already  defined,  which  are  ascertained  through 
the  use  of  the  sense  organs;  but  there  are  also  mental 
facts  of  which  one  becomes  aware  by  looking  within  his 
own  mind. 

The  material  facts  can  be  observed  by  any  number  of 
people,  but  mental  facts  can  be  directly  observed  or 
experienced  by  one  person  only.  A  mental  fact  is  any 
psychological  state  or  experience.  Thus,  you  say,  "I  was 
afraid."  You  are  reporting  a  state  which  actually 
existed,  but  which  only  you  were  in  a  position  to  observe 
directly.     Of  course,  someone  else,  knowing  the  circum- 


240  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

stance  wliicli  might  reasona])ly  frighten  you,  or  observ^ 
ing  the  expression  on  your  face,  could  well  say,  ''Yes,  he 
was  afraid";  but  he  would  not  be  reporting  a  direct  ob- 
servation of  your  state  of  mind.  His  conclusion  would  be 
an  inference  from  facts  which  he  did  observe,  namely,  a 
number  of  circumstances  and  the  expression  of  your 
face.  These  two  kinds  of  facts,  mental  and  material, 
form  the  basis  of  all  knowledge,  the  foundation  of  all 
scientific  truth,  and  the  material  for  all  thought  not  in- 
cluded in  the  unrational  realm  of  faith. 

Consequently,  a  fact  is  anything  which  exists  in  the 
world  and  knowledge  of  which  we  gain  through  the  most 
immediate  contact  possible.  We  may  define  an  inference 
as  knowledge  which  we  accept  as  true  because  of  trust- 
worthy mental  operations  beyond  the  direct  observation 
of  facts. 

7.  Witnesses 

Whether  a  fact  which  we  use  in  argument  be  external 
and  physical  or  internal  and  mental,  someone  must  be 
its  witness  and  report  its  existence  to  others.  Before 
accepting  the  fact  as  actually  existing  in  the  form  re- 
ported, we  make  sure  of  certain  things  concerning  the 
witness  and  the  observation. 

1.  Was  the  Avitness  competent  to  make  the  observa- 
tion? 

2.  Were  conditions  favorable  to  accurate  observa- 
tion? 

.").  Is  the  observer  telling  exactly  what  he  observed,  or 
is  he  misrepresenting? 

(1)  Competence  of  the  Wifnes.9 

It  is  obvious  that  a  deaf  man  is  not  a  reliable  witness 
to  a  conversation,  nor  is  a  blind  man  likely  to  make 
accurate  i-eports  concerning  colors.     Neither  is  provided 


ARGUMENTS  AND  PRESENTATION  241 

with  adequate,  physical  means  of  perception.  So,  also,  a 
scientist  equipped  with  a  poor  microscope  or  no  micro- 
scope at  all  is  less  able  to  make  correct  observations 
concerning  cell-structure  than  a  fellow  investigator  who 
uses  a  modern,  high-power  instrument.  Between  the 
two  extremes,  total  incapacity  because  of  physical  defect 
and  maxinmm  efficiency  through  normal  sense  organs 
extended  to  their  highest  potentiality  by  instruments  for 
accurate  observation,  witnesses  vary  in  physical  and 
mental  competence. 

If  you  are  arguing  that  the  temi3erature  of  a  certain 
health  resort  never  varies  more  than  ten  degrees  above  or 
below  68  F.,  you  may  offer  as  fact  support  a  temperature 
record  for  each  day  over  a  period  of  three  years,  made  by 
the  clerk  of  the  local  drug  store.  Any  normal  person  is 
capable  of  observing  a  thermometer  and  recording  the 
readings.  But  suppose  the  argument  should  be  that  a 
particular  food  should  be  excluded  from  the  markets, 
under  a  Pure  Food  ruling,  because  the  consumption  of  a 
reasonable  amount  of  it  would  bring  about  the  consump- 
tion of  more  than  three-tenths  of  a  gram  of  saccharin  a 
day.  All  accept  the  ruling  of  the  Pure  Food  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  that  saccharin  may  be  injurious  and  you  say 
that  three-tenths  of  a  gram,  as  set  by  the  Board  of 
Referees,  is  the  danger  point.  Does  the  particular  food 
contain  more  than  the  safe  quantity  of  saccharin  in  a 
day's  ration!  The  facts  must  be  ascertained  by  very 
delicate  observation.  A  chemist,  besides  having  other 
qualifications,  must  be  equipped  with  apparatus  which 
will  enable  him  not  only  to  detect  the  presence  of  sac- 
charin but  also  to  determine  the  exact  quantity  in  a  given 
sample. 

You  strengthen  the  facts  which  you  yourself  offer  in 
evidence  if  you  show  the  physical  capability  of  your  wit- 
ness, and  you  may  attack  the  fact  support  of  an  opponent 


242  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

by  revealing  sliortcomiiigs  of  liis  witnesses  in  this  re- 
spect. 

Besides  physical  competence,  there  is  mental  compe- 
tence. The  most  general  weakness  here  is  the  simple 
fault  in  memory.  If  time  elapses  between  the  observation 
and  the  report,  certain  things  are  often  forgotten,  some 
become  obscure,  the  order  of  succession  is  not  remem- 
bered, and  there  is  a  tendency  to  substitute  what  ought 
logically  to  have  taken  place  or  what  would  be  desirable 
to  have  taken  place  instead  of  what  was  actually  ob- 
served on  the  spot.  The  possibility  of  weakness  in  the 
memory  of  a  witness  is  usually  suggested  by  contradictory 
testimony  by  another  witness.  If  it  can  be  shown  that 
one  has  a  generally  poor  memory  while  the  other  is  nor- 
mal or  exceptionally  good,  other  things  being  equal,  we 
accept  the  report  of  the  second. 

Another  mental  point  to  be  considered  may  w^ell  be 
called  payflcular  expertnes.s  in  a  certain  kind  of  observa- 
tion. Often  at  a  basket  ball  game,  the  umpire  or  referee 
sees  a  play  not  noticed  by  most  of  the  spectators.  Of 
course,  this  may  be  due  partially  to  superior  eyesight, 
but  usually  such  skill  is  mental  rather  than  physical. 
Much  experience  in  making  one  kind  of  observations 
makes  the  mind  quick  to  co-operate  with  the  eye.  The 
same  chord  may  strike  the  ear  of  a  musical  genius  and 
tliat  of  an  ordinary  man  with  perfectly  good  hearing, 
yet  the  musician  will  say  that  this  is  not  one  sound  but  a 
combination  of  such  and  such  separate  sounds.  The  dif- 
ference is  mental,  for  a  little  ])ractice  will  enable  the 
other  man,  under  proper  directions,  to  disting-uish  the 
hidden  tones  also. 

In  many  scientific  and  economic  ai'guments,  we  have 
to  depend  upon  the  report  of  expert  observers  of  facts. 
This  does  not  mean  that  we  accept  the  opinions  or  con- 
clusions  of   these  experts  without  (juestion;    it   simply 


ARGUMENTS  AND  PRESENTATION  243 

means  that  we  recognize  that  a  man  who  has  been  ob- 
serving in  a  certain  fiekl  a  great  deal,  is  better  able  to 
see  what  actually  exists  there  than  one  who  has  not  had 
that  particular  kind  of  experience.  In  other  Avords,  prac- 
tice makes  perfect  in  observation. 

If  a  witness  can  be  shown  to  be  temporarily  or  perma- 
nently abnormal  or  subnormal  mentally,  his  report  of 
facts  may  be  discredited.  Recently  in  New  York,  a  gay 
party  returning  from  a  cafe  undertook  to  run  the  ele- 
vator of  the  apartment  in  which  some  of  them  lived.  As 
a  result  one  person  was  killed.  None  of  the  others  could 
give  a  clear  account  of  how  the  accident  took  place. 
Each,  furthermore,  had  a  different  version.  Temporary 
abnormality  may  be  due  to  liquor,  drugs,  intense  fatigue 
(example  of  the  overworked  engineer  who  cannot  tell  a 
red  from  a  green  signal),  shock,  etc.  Permanent  mental 
aberration  ranges  all  the  way  from  insanity,  through 
hallucination,  to  minor  peculiarities. 

(2)  Conditions  of  Observation 

There  are  often  external  conditions  which  hamper  cor- 
rect observation.  Every  one  knows  that  it  is  unwise  to 
buy  a  suit  of  clothes  under  artificial  light,  for  what 
looked  like  a  quiet,  navy  blue  may,  in  the  sunlight,  turn 
out  to  be  an  embarrassing  purple  or  sky  blue.  Not  only 
do  poor  lighting,  mist  fog,  obstructions,  and  other  fixed, 
external  conditions  interfere  with  observation,  but  chang- 
ing circumstances,  such  as  general  confusion  and  a  rapid 
succession  of  events,  also  cause  inaccuracy.  An  example 
of  this  last  is  found  in  the  Fourth  of  July  pinwheel  which 
looks  like  a  circle  of  fire  when  in  reality  it  is  a  single  spot 
of  light  revolving  rapidly. 

Not  only  does  movement  of  the  thing  observed  cause 
confusion,  but  haste  in  movement  on  the  part  of  the 
observer  will  do  the  same  thing.    An  investigating  com- 


244  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

mittee-  visited  the  schools  of  Xew  York  City  and  handed 
in  a  severe  report.  The  report  was  subsequently  dis- 
credited by  many  because  of  alleged  errors  arising  from 
the  fact  that  the  critics  were  mal-obser\'ers,  through 
haste.  Similar  to  this  is  the  error  likely  to  arise  when  a 
report  is  gotten  up  concerning  facts  spread  over  a  wide 
field  which  is  to  be  covered  by  an  inadequate  number  of 
investigators. 

(S)  Credibility  of  the  Witness 

In  popular  arguments  or  discussions  of  a  non-technical 
character,  it  is  not  so  much  the  capability  of  the  witness 
which  is  open  to  question  as^  v<  it  his  credibility  or  truth- 
fulness. There  is  usually  litth-  doubt  that  an  ordinary 
person  may  be  able  to  record  the  quantity  of  imports  or 
exports  or  transmit  the  testimony  in  a  congressional 
investigation;  1ml  lli'i<'  i>  (itt<]i  luirM^rtainty  concerning 
the  intent  of  a  iiiaii  to  t(,'ll  the  truth  or  to  pervert  it  to 
suit  his  own  interests.  Especially  in  political  arguments 
do  we  find  reports  of  alleged  facts  discredited  because 
the  source  of  information  is  looked  upon  as  generally 
corrupt  and  iimiioral.  There  are  two  things  which  may 
tlirow  doubt  upon  the  credibilits"  of  a  witness:  (1)  a  gen- 
eral reputation  for  unreliability  and  (2)  the  existence  of 
a  special  motive  to  roprcsont  things  in  a  certain  way 
whether  they  are  so  oi-  not. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  weakness  of  general,  moral 
character  (even  when  establisjied)  is  not  proof  positive 
tliat  a  man's  statement  of  fact  is  deliberately  falsified. 
Such  a  flaw  merely  raises  a  doubt.  The  doubt  is  strength- 
ened if  other  witnesses,  of  better  character,  disagi'ee  with 
the  testimony.  In  all  cases  where  general  character  is 
not  satisfactory,  it  is  not  only  safe  but  also  fair  to  hold 
the  testimony  in  suspension  rather  tlian  to  reject  it  alto- 
gether.   If  a  careful  investigation,  employing  all  known 


ak(;i;mI':nts  and  i'Rkskntatiox  -mo 

IckIh  and  HalV/^uards,  I'ailK  to  r('vcal  niiHrcprcrtcrilaiioii, 
Wk'U  IIjc  had  ('IiuvacU'V  of  tlic  wilncsK  is  not  Kuniciciii 
ground  in  ifsclf  Tor  tlic  discardin;^  of  llic  t<',s1ini(>My. 

Soiii('1in)<'.s  v.c  liiid  a  special  iiiolixc  or  reason  I'or  a 
man  lo  twist  liis  \(\)<>v\  in  lliis  or  llial  dircelion.  Il  is 
well  luKAvn  ilial  c.oi'iJoratioDK  uscmJ  to  make  I'alsi;  cnti-ics 
in  IlK'ir  hooks  lo  hide  exccKsivc!  f>rofi1s,  ^riic  rrxxlern 
practice  oj'  (M>r{)ora1ioj)s  to  o\'ej-(;aj>itali/>e  is  similac  in 
some  rcKpects.  It  is  to  Die  jntei-cst  oi'  sncli  concerns  lo 
sliow  a  Kteady,  reaKonahle  fji-ofi1  rallx-r  than  fln<'1  nalin;^- 
or  extrenx'ly  hi^li  returns.  I^'inancial  i-easons,  r<'asons 
o)'  lionor  arxl  re[>ulalion,  and  many  olljers,  sorrx'limes  a(;t 
as  sfX'ciaJ  irx-enlives  for  a  man  lo  c.oticcnl  or  misrepres<'n1 
I'acts. 

A  si>ecial  moli\'e  j'oj-  j'nise  lesl il'yinj^-  does  not  neces- 
sarily (;ast  a  slion;^*')-  douhl  llian  general  dishonesty 
Ufx>n  an  assertion  of  I'acl,  ])]i\,  it  doeh,  ;_'i\<'  ;i  ch-arer  itxii 
cation  of  the  djj-ecti(jn  ol"  the  lalsilication.  W'e  know 
that  a  real  estale  a^^'ent  want-  all  the  facts  ahont  a  dis- 
tiict  he  is  Ixxnnin^  to  he  favorahie  lo  health,  hiiHirxjKK 
j>ros[X'rity,  and  KO(;ial  hapfnrx'KK.  Jf  he  misrepresentK, 
it  njust  he  in  tix*  <lir<'ction  of  exa^^'eratinji^  vood  points. 
A  rival  a^<'nt,  interested  in  f>lot  I^,  would  misrej>j-esei)t 
f)lot  A  in  tlx?  direction  of  had  [>oints.  A  thoron^li  iuves- 
ti^alion  njay  kIjow  tjjat  a  man  is  telling  tlj<'  trulli  for 
itK  own  Hake  uninfluenced  hy  the  call  of  his  own  sfX'cial 
inUtntHiH;  hut  whcro  a  Hpociaj  ii)t<;rcKt  is  sIionmi,  we  are 
f)articularly  careful  to  investigate  the  facts  suhmitterj. 

8.     J*'JNAJ.    SrOfiKSriONS    ('oNCKHNINO    THK    AceKI'l  Al',ll-n  V 

OF  Facts 

Facts  may  he  directly  ohserv<'d   hy  you,  yourself,  or 

Ihey  may  \)(t  re[>orte(J  to  you  hy  ollx'rs,     The  testimony 

of  others  may  reach  you  through  Hpee(;h,  letter,  or  [xjhlic 

fjrint.     In  all  tlx-se  latter  cases  you  must  not  only  test  tlx* 


246  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

facts  as  you  understand  tliem  but  you  must  be  as  sure 
as  possible  that  you  liave  gathered  the  observer's  exact 
meaning,  that  the  language  difficulty  has  not  stood  in  the 
way  of  an  appreciation  of  exactly  what  he  wanted  to  put 
on  record — that  and  nothing  else.  To  these  facts,  as  well 
as  those  of  your  own  observation,  apply  the  tests  already 
mentioned. 

Facts  gain  in  acceptability  if  several  observers  make 
the  same  report  or  if  no  one  testifies  to  the  contrary.  Of 
course,  in  the  case  of  mental  facts  only  one  person  is  in 
a  position  to  make  a  direct  observation;  his  testimony 
Avill  depend  upon  his  credibility  and  the  extent  to  which 
his  reported  experience  was  verified  by  his  subsequent 
acts  as  observed  by  others. 

If  you  get  the  habit  of  patience"  and  care  in  checking 
up  the  capability  and  credibility  of  each  observer  of  a 
fact  you  accept,  as  well  as  the  conditions  of  observation, 
your  opinions  will  rest  upon  firm  foundations  and  your 
arguments  to  convince  others  will  be  strong. 

9.  The  Gathering  of  Facts 

If  you  are  interested  in  arguments  concerning  topics 
which  stretch  beyond  the  limits  of  daily,  personal  con- 
tact, you  will  have  to  gather  facts  by  reading.  It  is  well 
for  every  student  of  speech-making  to  know  the  stand- 
ard places  of  reference. 

I.  ENCYCLOPEDIAS  such  as  the  Britannica,  the  Neiv 
International,  Nelson's,  and  the  CatJiolic,  give  facts  con- 
cerning most  things  of  importance  and  dispute.  Further- 
more, articles  in  those  sources  usually  contain  a  list  of 
books  which  may  be  consulted  for  fuller  and  more  de- 
tailed treatment  of  a  topic.  Such  bibliographies  are 
usually  most  trustworthy  and  include  only  the  best  works. 

TI.  GENERAL  CATALOGUES  of  tlic  books  iu  tho  libraries 
you  frequent  will  enalih^  you  to  make  a  list  of  the  avail- 


ARGUMENTS  AND  PRESENTATION  247 

able  books  on  tlio  subject  you  are  looking  up.  It  is  well 
to  read  the  table  of  contents  of  all  the  books  you  can  get 
before  undertaking  a  careful  study  of  any  one. 

III.  MAGAZINE  LITERATURE  Is  exceedingly  well  indexed 
in  Poole's  Index,  The  Reader's  Guide,  and  The  Annual 
Library  Index.  In  these  places  we  are  put  on  the  track 
not  only  of  the  latest  contributions  to  a  current  discus- 
sion, but  also  some  of  the  best  writings  on  various  topics, 
which  are  not  to  be  found  in  book  form. 

IV.  YEAR  BOOKS  sucli  as  the  New  International,  the 
American  Year  Book,  and  the  Annual  Register,  give  brief 
but  trustworthy  accounts  of  the  events  of  a  particular 
year.  Such  sources  are  valuable  primarily  because  they 
put  you  on  the  track  of  more  detailed  accounts  to  be 
found  and  verified  elsewhere. 

■V.  REPORTS  of  a  special  character  and  government 
DOCUMENTS  also  are  valuable,  especially  in  economic  or 
political  discussions. 

Eemember,  however,  wherever  you  find  your  facts, 
to  apply  to  them  the  tests  of  acceptability.  No  man  is 
infallible  and  errors  may  originate  even  close  to  the  seats 
of  the  mighty. 

It  is  not  honest  to  yourself  or  to  your  audience  to  form 
and  give  out  opinions  when  you  have  not  made  sure  of 
the  facts  upon  which  they  rest.  It  is  certain  that  you  will 
fail  to  convince  an  audience  if  you  are  not  in  a  position 
to  produce  the  facts  when  necessary. 

Assignment  of  Work 

The  written  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  your  notebook. 

First  Day. — Read  the  lesson  twice  carefii%;  then  take  a  maga- 
zine article  and  underline  every  opinion  expressed  which  is 
not  adequately  supported  by  facts. 


248  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Second  Day. — Select  one  of  the  followiug  opinions  and  support 
it  by  two  or  more  subordinate  opinions  as  indicated  on  i^ipcs 
235  and  236  of  this  lesson,  in  connection  with  the  Irish 
Home  Rule  question.  Then  write  down  the  actual  facts 
you  know  in  support  of  the  minor  opinions. 

1.  The  influx  of  foreign  labor  into  the  Ignited  States  is 
detrimental  to  the  welfare  of  American  labor.    ' 

2.  Tlie  influx  of  labor  into  the  United  States  is  a  desir- 
able economic  force  for  prosperity. 

3.  Judges  should  be  subject  to  recall  by  direct  vote  of 
the  people. 

4.  The  United  States  should  increase  its  army  and  navy. 

5.  The  United  States  should  diminish  its  armed  forces 
and  work  for  neutrality  agreements. 

6.  The  Single  Tax  is  (or  is  not)  desirable  for  the  United 
States. 

7.  The  IMonroe  Doctrine  is  of  more  harm  than  good  to 
our  interests  as  a  nation. 

8.  The  United  States  should  relinquish  all  colonial  pos- 
sessions. 

9.  A  national  Prohibition  Law  is  desirable. 

10.  All  institutions  of  learning,  from  kindergarten  to  uni- 
versity professional  school,  should  be  conducted  free  to  stu- 
dents l)y  the  government. 

Third  and.  Fourth  Bays. — Carefully  formulate  and  write  down 
an  opinion  you  hold  on  some  current  problem  or  national 
polic3^  Then  go  to  the  nearest  library  and  make  the  most 
complete  list  you  can  of  the  available  books,  reports,  and 
articles  on  the  subject.  After  making  your  bibliography, 
begin  to  read  up  on  the  subject,  taking  notes  as  you  read. 

/•'////(  Day. — Continue  your  reading  and  note-taking.  Then 
write  down  a  series  of  facts  gathered  from  the  reading, 
noting  the  name  of  the  witness  in  each  case  and  the  accept- 
ability of  the  facts.     Use  the  following  form. 

PACTS  WITNESSES  ACCEPTAIHLITY 

Note  the  facts  Note  names  of  Enumerate  here : 

in  this  column  witnesses  (a)    General  reputation 

(b)  Special  interests 

(c)  Ability — mental 

and  physical 

(d)  Circumstances    of 

observation 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  ,<iiicigesfirc  merely,  dealing  largely  with  tlie  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  he  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  Did  you  ever  hear  a  speaker  whose  vivid  presentation 
sfrnek  you  as  good,  but  who  never  took  the  trouble  to  demon- 
strate the  acceptability  of  what  he  presented?  How  do  you  feel 
when  listening-  to  such  a  man?     Do  you  doubt  his  honesty? 

2.  What    is    the    difference    between    representation    and 

(Iciiionstration? 

3.  Give  a  definition  of  argumentation. 

4.  What  are  the  main  features  of  a  judgment? 

5.  W'hat  is  a  proposition? 

6.  Why  do  opinions  need  verification  ? 

7.  What  are  the  two  processes  by  which  we  arrive  at 
opinions? 

S.     WHiat  is  meant  by  a  fact  ?    What  is  an  inference  ? 

9.  In  what  ways  can  an  opinion  be  supported?  AVhat  is 
the  nature  of  the  final  or  ultimate  support  of  an  opinion? 

10.  Do  you  know  any  "generally  accepted  opinion,"  that 
is,  a  belief  held  by  all  without  any  question? 

11.  AVhat  is  a  mental  fact?    Who  may  witness  such  a  fact? 

12.  Wliat  three  things  must  be  checked  up  to  insure  the 
acceptability  of  a  fact? 

13.  Can  you  give  an  example  of  a  physically  incompetent 
v.itness?  of  a  mentally  incompetent  witness? 

14.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  get  witnesses  of  a  railroad  acci- 
dent or  a  theater  panic  to  agree  in  their  accounts  of  the  facts  f 

249 


250  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

15.  "What  two  features  must  be  eonsiderod  in  passing  on  a 
man's  credibility  ? 

16.  Do  you  reject  facts  because  they   are  rei)orted   by  a 
witness  of  low  morals? 

17.  What  are  the  generally  recognized  sources  of  published 
facts? 


LESSON  14 

INDUCTIVE  AND  DEDUCTIVE   ARGUMENTS 

In  our  last  lesson,  we  dwelt  upon  the  importance  of 
facts  as  foundational  to  all  arguments.  In  this  lesson, 
we  shall  consider  the  types  of  reasoning — the  logical 
workings  of  the  mind  beyond  the  direct  observation  of 
facts.  Yet,  at  the  very  threshold  of  our  study  of  reason- 
ing, we  must  once  more  insist  that  the  most  valuable 
asset  of  the  argumentative  speaker  is  a  wide  and  accm-ate 
gi'asp  of  facts ;  no  amount  of  skill  in  logic,  no  amount  of 
cunning  in  the  construction  of  arguments  can  take  the 
place  of  trustworthy  facts.  Indeed,  dialectic  facility, 
without  a  mastery  of  facts,  produces  only  an  empty  shell 
of  pretense.  On  the  other  hand,  a  knowledge  of  facts 
usually  insures  clear  "reasoning,  for  the  human  mind  has 
a  normal  tendency  to  formulate  correct  opinions  if  it  is 
provided  with  the  proper  materials  of  thought. 

Yet  there  is  need  for  the  public  speaker  to  understand 
the  fundamental  principles  of  reasoning  and  to  master 
all  types  of  argument.  In  this  lesson  we  shall  consider 
the  two  great  classes  of  inferences  or  reasoning  processes, 
the  inductive  and  the  deductive. 

Induction- 

Just  as  it  is  natural  for  the  mind  to  form  general 
notions  or  concepts  after  perceiving  many  objects  of  a 
similar  character,  so  it  is  natural  for  it  to  formulate 
general  laws  deliberately.  For  example,  you  throw  a 
stone  up  in  the  air  and  it  falls  to  the  ground ;  you  toss 
up  a  ball  and  it  falls  to  earth;  the  stem  of  an  apple  on 

251 


252  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

the  tree  breaks  and  tlie  apple  drops;  the  wind  raises 
the  knaves  only  that 'they  may  once  more  return  to  their 
resting  place.  Observing  all  these  things,  you  infer  a 
general  law  to  the  effect  that  "Whatever  goes  up  must 
come  down."  Or,  if  you  are  more  careful  in  your  state- 
ment, you  say,  ''All  bodies,  when  raised  in  the  air  and 
left  unsupported,  fall  to  the  earth."  If  you  are  very 
scientific,  you  w^ill  time  the  various  falling  bodies  and  get 
a  law  somewhat  as  follows:  "All  interfering  agencies 
being  eliminated,  a  body  falls  sixteen  feet  during  the 
first  second,  another  sixteen  and  an  additional  thirty- 
two  the  second  second,  still  another  sixteen  and  an 
additional  sixty-four  the  third  second,  and  so  on."  More 
briefly  your  law  will  be :  "A  falling  object  drops  sixteen 
feet  during  the  first  second  and  has  the  velocity  of  its 
fall  increased  every  second  by  thirty-two  feet  over  the 
velocity  of  the  preceding  second."  Each  of  these  prop- 
ositions states  in  more  or  less  complete  form,  an  inductive 
inference.  This  inference  is  the  general  opinion  which 
you  form  because  of  a  number  of  facts  which  have  come 
under  your  observation. 

The  simplest  kind  of  induction  is  known  as  the  perfect 
induction.  It  consists  merely  of  making  a  general  state- 
ment concerning  all  the  cases  of  a  certain  sort  observed, 
when  the  number  of  such  cases  is  limited  and  you  are 
sure  you  have  observed  them  all.  For  instance,  you 
might  say,  "All  the  countries  of  South  America  which 
gained  their  independence  adopted  the  Republican  form 
of  government."  The  induction  is  perfect  or  complete 
1)ecause  there  is  no  possibility  that  any  case  could  have 
escaped  observation.  Such  inductions  are  usually 
correct.  If  the  observations  hav3  been  made  carefully 
the  possibility  of  error  is  very  slight. 

But  the  imperfect  induction  is  another  matter.  Take 
the    example    concerning    falling    bodies,    just    olTcrcd. 


TYPES  OF  ARGU:\rEXT  25r5 

Obviously  no  man  or  group  of  men  can  succeed  in  observ- 
ing every  falling  body  or  every  Cody  left  in  the  air 
unsupported.  Only  a  great  many  cases  can  be  observed. 
But  since  all  of  these  act  in  a  certain  identical  way,  we 
infer  that  all  bodies  (these  and  others)  will  continue  to 
act  in  the  same  way  under  similar  circumstances.  As  we 
have  said,  the  tendency  to  generalize  is  a  human  trait. 
We  may  now  say  that  a  very  small  number  of  cases  and 
often  a  single  case,  will  be  sufficient  to  suggest  a  general 
law. 

A  village  gossip  noses  out  some  scandal  about  a 
particular  preacher  and  then  says,  ''All  preachers  are 
rascally  hypocrites."  The  impulse  to  make  this  gen- 
eralization is  natural,  but  to  hold  to  it  without  further 
investigation  is  hasty  judgment.  If  the  gossip  should 
get  similar  damaging  evidence  against  three  or  four 
more  clergymen,  he  would  be  more  justified  in  his 
inference,  but  even  then  the  generalization  from  the 
particular  cases  at  hand  would  be  hasty.  Assuming  that 
every  minister  cannot  be  looked  up  and  examined,  a 
generalization  concerning  the  whole  group  must  be  made 
with  care  and  subjected  to  certain  checks  and  tests.  We 
shall  discuss  these  precautionary  safeguards  later. 

(a)     Place  of  Inductions 

Very  often,  in  the  course  of  an  argument,  a  speaker 
may  want  to  establish  a  general  law  or  opinion.  He 
may,  let  us  say,  want  to  prove  that ' '  trade  unions  always 
raise  the  wages  of  labor"  as  a  necessary  step  in  an  -argu- 
ment to  show  that  unions  should  be  fostered.  He  might 
reasonably  be  expected  to  establish  still  another 
generalization  to  the  effect  that  ''whatever  raises  the 
wages  of  labor  should  be  fostered."  Both  generalizations 
might   be    accepted   without   further    argument    by    the 


254  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

audience,  but  on  the  other  hand  they  might  require 
demonstration.  Assuming  that  safety  calls  for  a  careful 
demonstration  of  these  opinions,  the  speaker  must 
acquaint  himself  with  the  kinds  of  induction  and  the 
checks  Avhich  are  of  service  for  each  kind. 

(b)     Kinds  of  Induction 

Like  all  propositions,  the  statement  which  expresses 
the  conclusions  of  an  inductive  inference  indicates  a 
relationship)  between  two  things.  Let  us  illustrate  first 
one  and  then  the  other  of  the  two  possible  kinds  of  rela- 
tionship which  may  be  indicated.  You  say,  ''Trade 
unions  are  the  cause  of  high  wages  in  America, "  "  Busi- 
ness depression  is  of  psychological  origin,"  "A  large 
army  and  navy  always  stimulates  a  nation  to  war,"  or 
''Nations  which  continue  to  draw  in  foreign  blood, 
decay."  In  each  of  these  statements  you  indicate  that 
one  thing  is  the  cause  of  another  or  the  effect  of  another. 
The  relationship  expressed  is  a  causal  relationship.  It  is 
one  of  the  two  kinds  of  relationship  which  are  expressed 
often  in  practical,  public  discussions.  Debaters  and 
campaign  speakers  often  assert  that  certain  things  are 
the  causes  of  other  things. 

The  second  kind  of  relationship  is  one  of  classification. 
Statements  which  indicate  this  relationship  simply  say 
that  "all  A's  have  this  or  that  characteristic  or  group  of 
characteristics."  Suppose,  for  instance,  we  read,  "All 
the  signers  of  the  Constitution  favored  the  elimination  of 
slavery  in  America."  The  asserter  classifies  all  these 
men  as  being  alike  in  one  respect — their  desire  to 
eliminate  slavery.  The  inference  consists  (1)  of  analyz- 
ing a  great  many  individuals  or  cases  and  (2)  of  making 
a  statement  that  will  be  true  of  all.  Such  a  process  is 
often  of  service  when  trving  to  ccmvince  others.    In  law 


types;  of  argument  255 

cases  we  may  want  to  prove  tliat  '^ihe  court  has  alwaj^s 
held  thus  and  so."  The  following  example  is  a  typical 
induction  leading  to  a  statement  of  classitication  rela- 
tionship, drawn  from  current,  diplomatic  controversy. 
The  circumstances  were  as  follows:  England  declared 
that  all  the  ports  of  Germany  were  blockaded  and  that 
any  neutral  vessel  trying  to  run  to  or  from  any  German 
port,  might  be  captured  and  confiscated.  Certain  people 
objected  to  this  "paper  blockade,"  saying  that  no  port 
is  properly  under  blockade  unless  England  has  a  chain 
of  warships  in  physical  command  of  the  entire  restricted 
area.  This  example  is  an  inductive  argument  to  show 
that  ''all  cases  during  the  Civil  Wry  were  paper  block- 
ades of  the  same  type  as  that  now  declared  by  England." 

When  the  government  of  the  United  States  realized  that  to 
subdue  the  Confederate  states  it  must  close  their  ports,  it  did 
not  hesitate  to  decree  a  blockade  of  2.500  miles  of  coast.  No 
anchored  chain  of  vessels  would  be  possible  on  such  a  coast  line. 
The  Supreme  Court  of  the  Ignited  States  looked  at  the  purpose 
of  a  blockade  rather  than  the  method  of  maintaining  it. 

The  court  held  that  a  blockade  was  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  ingress  and  egress  to  and  from  an  enemy 's  port.  It 
was  effective  if  merchant  vessels  were .  exposed  to  danger  of 
capture  in  any  way.  As  the  prime  object  was  to  cut  off  the 
enemy's  commerce,  more  attention  was  paid  to  that  than  to  the 
"geographical  area  of  operations."  Vessels  destined  for  those 
ports  were  supposed  to  contemplate  running  the  blockade  and 
were  captured  without  ceremony  or  study  of  ''precedents  in 
law  or  history.'.' 

The  Bermuda  and  the  Springbok  bound  for  Nassau  in  the 
Bahama  Islands,  the  Stephen,  Hart  bound  for  Cardenas  in  Cuba, 
aiui  the  Pefcrhoff  destined  for  JIatamoras,  ^lexico,  all  British 
ships  bound  for  neutral  ports,  were  captured  for  attempted 
breach  of  blockade.  The  Supreme  Court  upheld  the  judgments, 
and  the  British  government  recognized  as  correct  the  principles 
on  which  the  judgments  were  founded,  and  declined  to  protest. 
She  recognized  the  fact  also  that  blockade  is  one  of  the  nuisances 
of  war  to  which  all  must  be  subject. 

We  made  our  rules  to  fit  the  case  and  we  can  hardly  deny  the 
same  privilege  to  others. 


256  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(c)     Clieck'mg  up  a  Generalisation  of  Classificafion 

AVhenever  a  general  statement  of  the  kind  just  given 
is  to  be  expressed  and  checked  np,  the  rule  to  follow  is 
very  simple:  (1)  Be  sure  that  all  the  cases  you  have 
observed  are  true  cases  under  the  general  statement, 
and  (2)  be  sure  that  you  have  overlooked  no  case  which 
may  exist  and  which  may  disagree  with  your  conclusion. 
The  argument  just  offered  as  an  example  could  be 
refuted  by  revealing  a  single  case  where  England  did 
protest  effectively  against  a  Civil  War  blockade  decision. 
It  is,  of  course,  clear  that  patience  in  research  and 
analysis  is  necessary  to  success  in  this  form  of  induction. 
While  very  thorough  scientific  method  would  call  for  a 
most  exhaustive  presentation  of  all  the  available  cases, 
the  practical  public  speaker  must  be  guided  by  the  temper 
of  his  audience  in  determining  the  number  of  instances 
he  will  offer.  So  long  as  those  who  are  listening  are 
satisfied  that  a  sufficient  number  of  cases  has  been  pre- 
sented and  so  long  as  they  have  no  suspicion  that  there 
has  been  prejudicial  selection,  repression,  or  misrepre- 
sentation, the  speaker's  induction  is  safe. 

(d)     Chcclcinfi  up  a  Generalization  of  Cause  and  Effect 

When  a  generalization  states  a  causal  relation,  the 
speaker  faces  greater  difficulty.  The  danger  here  is  one 
of  nnalysis.  Even  if  the  speaker  embraces  enough  cases 
in  his  observations,  he  may  mistake  one  thing  for  the 
cause  of  another  merely  because  they  have  appeared 
together  in  the  cases  he  observed.  Whatever  precedes 
another  thing  is  not  necessarily  its  cause.  We  shall  give 
;i  few  examples  of  the  kinds  of  danger  incident  to  causal 
inductions.  Suppose  a  s])eaker  observes  that  thnes  of 
prosperity  in  the  United  States  have  been  times  of  high 
tariff.     He  carefullv  studies  the  returns  for  all  the  years 


TYPES  OF  AKGUI\IENT  257 

of  tlio  nation's  life  and  then  makes  the  general  statement 
that  since  times  of  prosperity  have  been  times  of  high 
tariff  and  times  of  depression  have  been  times  of  low 
tariff,  the  tariff  is  the  cause  of  prosperity.  Where  is  the 
danger?  Simply  in  the  fact  that  there  may  possibly  have 
been  a  hidden  cause  of  prosperity  snch  as  a  bumper  crop 
or  large  gold  supply,  and  the  tariff  may  have  been  an 
innocent  coincidence  all  the  while.  Now,  I  do  not  know 
about  the  merits  of  this  particular  question  but  merely 
cite  it  to  show  that  what  appears  to  be  a  cause  may  not 
be  a  cause  at  all. 

Furthermore,  the  tariff  might  have  been  the  true  cause 
at  one  period,  a  bumper  crop  at  another,  the  gold  supply 
at  a  third,  and  general  business  confidence  at  a  fourth. 
Here  we  see  the  possibility  of  a  plurality  of  causes. 

Notice  the  following  extract  from  a  speech  delivered 
by  Mr.  George  W.  Perkins  before  the  Economic  Club 
of  New  York,  February  10,  1915.1  Observe  that  he 
contends  that  it  is  not  the  taritT  which  has  caused  the 
trusts  but  rather  the  various  means  of  intercommunica- 
tion. As  you  read,  make  up  your  mind  whether  or  not 
he  supports  his  contention. 

Did  any  man  in  this  room  ever  hear  of  a  political  leader  or 
so-called  statesman  delivering-  a  speech  in  a  State  legislature 
or  the  National  Congress,  calling  the  attention  of  the  people  to 
the  mighty  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  methods  of 
intercommunication  during  the  last  twenty  years  and  pointing 
out  that,  as  intercommunication  is  the  first  requisite  for  doing 
business,  these  mighty  changes  are  entirely  responsible  for  the 
centralization  of  business? 

On  the  contrary,  speech  after  speech  has  been  made,  ha- 
rangning  our  people  with  the  grossly  misleading  statement  that 
the  trusts  exist  becaure  of  the  tariff  and  the  greed  and  avarice 
of  a  small  group  of  men.  A  more  pernicious  and  misleading 
statement  has  never  been  thrust  on  the  attention  of  oui'  pf^ople. 
No  one  would  dare  make  it,  if  oui-  political  leaders  had  their 


Copied  ffom   reprint  put  out  by   Tlie  Market   Woyld  and  Chronicle. 


258  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

minds  on  the  real  prol)lem,  rather  than  on  vote-getting ;  if  they 
really  studied  big  industrial  questions  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  public  good,  rather  than  their  own  good ;  if  they  had  the 
courage  and  honesty  to  stand  up  for  what  is  right  and  sound  in 
law  and  business,  rather  than  for  what  is  for  the  moment 
popular.  The  tariff  never  made  a  trust  and  free  trade  never 
will  destroy  one.  It  requires  only  a  very  little  serious,  intelli- 
gent thought  to  reach  the  inevitable  conclusion  that,  if  we  were 
given  free  trade  in  this  country  tomorrow,  not  a  single  so- 
called  trust  would  dissolve ;  on  the  other  hand,  even  though 
our  tariff  were  put  as  high  as  the  mountains,  if  that  strange 
force  which  we  call  electricity  were  suddenly  withdrawn  from 
our  use,  and  the  telephone  and  telegraph  went  out  of  ex- 
istence, not  a  single  so-called  trust  would  continue  for  twenty- 
four  hours. 

If  Mr.  Perkins  had  given  conclusive  proof  tlirougli  an 
adequate  number  of  cases  that  all  trusts  were  caused  l)y 
and  are  maintained  by  tlie  agency  of  intercommunication, 
he  would  have  made  a  perfect  argument  to  the  effect 
that  trusts  are  not  caused  by  the  tariff.  One  of  the  ways 
to  refute  an  induction  of  cause  is  to  prove  a  rival  or 
hidden  cause.  One  of  the  precautions  in  establishing  a 
cause  is  to  dispose  of  all  other  rival  causes. 

Just  as  there  are  hidden  causes,  sometimes  there  are 
hidden  obstacles  to  the  operation  of  a  cause.  Let  us 
give  an  example  of  the  interference  of  the  full  operation 
of  a  cause  to  produce  its  usual  effect. 

Dr.  Harvey  W.  Wiley,  in  the  September  (1914)  number 
of  Good  Housekeeping,  discusses  the  inference  drawn, 
concerning  the  effect  of  aluminum  compounds  on  the 
human  system,  by  the  Referee  Board  of  Scientific 
Experts  which  is  consulted  in  matters  aft'ected  by  the 
Pure  Pood  Law.    He  said: 

Three  membei-s  of  llie  Keferoc  Board  proceeded  to  condiicl 
experiments  to  det<M'iiiiiie  this  point  (1h<>  harmful  possibilities 
of  aluminum  compounds  w  hen  used  in  food).  These  men  w(>i"e 
Professor  Russrll  ]|.  ( 'liillendcn,  of  Yale  University;  Di'. 
Alonzo  Yj.  Taylor,  of  tlic  Uni\-.Tsi1y  of  Pennsyh^ania ;  and  \)v. 


TYPES  OF  ARGUMENT  259 

John  H.  Long,  of  NorthAvostern  University.  Dr.  Chittenden 
experimented  upon  a  squad  of  twelve  men  for  130  days ;  Dr. 
Taylor  used  eight  men;  and  Dr.  Long  conducted  his  experi- 
ments with  six.  Dr.  Chittenden  used  bread  raised  with  alum 
baking-powder  made  in  the  laboratory ;  Dr.  Long  used  a  mix- 
ture of  the  composition  that  is  left  in  bread  after  alum  baking- 
powder  has  been  used  to  raise  it ;  and  Dr.  Taylor  used  an  alum 
baking-powder  administered  in  wafers  or  dissolved  in  water. 

As  a  result  of  their  Avork,  Dr.  Chittenden  concludes  that 
small  quantities  of  aluminum  compounds,  and  even  compara- 
tively large  quantities  taken  daily  with  food,  have  no  effect 
upon  the  general  health  and  nutrition  of  the  body ;  Dr.  Long- 
reaches  substantially  the  same  conclusion ;  and  Dr.  Taylor  is 
of  the  opinion  that  little  danger  exists  from  the  use  of  alum 
baking-powder  that  is  not  also  attendant  upon  the  use  of  any 
other  kind.  *  *  *  The  report  shows  that  in  experiments 
where  the  aluminum  was  given  in  capsules  these  contained 
also  the  specific  anticlofe  for  the  poison  in  the  form  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda.  All  baking-powders  contain  bicarbonate  of 
soda  in  varying  quantities,  of  course ;  but  it  is  a  fact  that 
where  too  much  is  used  this  causes  yellow  splotches  in  the 
bread,  and  to  avoid  this  there  must  be  more  acid,  in  this  case 
alum.  Baking-powder  manufacturers  state  that  a  chemical 
reaction  takes  place  in  baking  which  transforms  the  alum  into 
aluminum  hydroxide,  insoluble  in  water  and  therefore  harm- 
less in  the  digestive  tract ;  but  this  is  true  only  when  there  is 
enough  bicarbonate  to  neutralize  the  alum,  which  is  not  always 
the  case. 

The  Referee  Board  had  been  studiously  careful  to  dodge  the 
issue  contained  in  the  use  of  alum  for  the  hardening  of  pickles 
foi'  the  purpose  of  concealing  their  inferiority.  It  is  true  that 
Dr.  Long  has  drawn  attention  to  the  general  use  of  alum  in 
pickles,  but  he  coincidentally  concludes  that  the  quantity  of 
aluminum  that  might  be  consumed  in  either  pickles  or  fruits 
is  so  small  compared  with  the  quantities  actually  consumed  in 
baking-powders,  that  the  study  of  the  baking-powders  may  be 
taken  to  cover  the  entire  field.  He  has,  it  would  seem,  gone 
far  out  of  his  Avay  to  imply  that  the  alum  found  in  pickles  and 
other  food  products  is  the  same  l-incl  of  aJuni  to  be  found  in 
and  produced  by  the  chemical  reactions  of  the  baking-powders, 
and  there  is  not  the  slightest  evidence  to  indicate  that  this 
assumption  is  true.  As  pointed  out,  the  baking-poAvders  con- 
tain, in  the  form  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  some  of  their  own 
antidoie  for  the  alum,  Avhile  the  pickles  and  the  fruits,  as  Avell 
as  other  foods,  contain  none  of  this  antidote.    This  leaA^es  Avhat 


260  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

I  insist  is  deleterious  to  be  taken  into  the  human  system,  and 
thus  permits  a  wide  gap  to  be  torn  in  the  Pure  Food  Law. 

We  cannot  take  space  to  point  out  all  the  errors  pos- 
sible in  a  causal  induction,  nor  to  explain  all  the 
precautions  devised  by  logicians  to  insure  correct 
generalizations,  but  the  illustrations  given  will  indicate 
the  general  danger  and  the  following  checks  will  serve 
most  of  the  purposes  of  the  practical  speaker. 

1.  Apply  the  two  checks  already  given  for  generaliza- 
tions of  classification. 

2.  If  you  conclude  that  one  thing  is  invariably  the 
cause  of  another,  see  if  you  can  find  anything  else  which 
can  also  be  its  cause. 

3.  Analyze  to  discover  in  existing  circumstances  any- 
thing which  might  nullify  the  action  of  a  cause  which 
you  believe  would  produce  a  certain  effect  if  left  to  act 
freely. 

4.  On  the  other  hand,  analyze  to  see  if  your  cause  of 
an  observed  effect  really  produced  that  effect  by  itself 
or  if  it  was  merely  a  part  of  a  combination  which  was 
necessary  to  bring  about  the  result. 

Of  course,  it  is  obvious  that  to  apply  these  checks  you 
must  have  many  facts  as  ^vell  as  circumstances  which 
make  correct  analysis  possible. 

Deductiox 

We  have  just  explained  that  induction  is  the  process 
by  which  we  infer  a  general  law  from  a  limited  number 
of  observed  facts;  deduction  is  the  process  by  which, 
after  accepting  a  general  law,  we  infer  other  information 
which  reasonably  follows  from  it.  For  example,  we  have 
the  general  statement,  "All  United  States  senators  must 
be  thirty  years  old  or  over."  From  this  we  infer  that 
Senator  A  or  Senator  B  must  be  at  least  thirty  years 
old. 


TYPES  OF  ARGUMENT  2G1 

The  simplest  form  of  deductive  reasoning  to  explain, 
is  called  a  syllogism  of  the  first  form.  All  syllogisms 
consist  of  two  statements  known  as  premises  from  which 
one  reasonably  infers  a  third  statement  or  conclusion. 
The  argument  just  given  can  be  expressed  in  this 
syllogistic  form  as  follows : 

All  United  States  Senators  must  be  thirty  years  old 
or  older. 

Mr.  A.  is  a  United  States  Senator. 

Therefore,  Mr.  A.  must  be  thirty  years  old  or  older. 

Note  the  following  things  about  the  syllogism.  The 
first  statement  or  major  premise  is  a  generalization 
which  is  the  result  of  a  previous  induction.  If  you 
accept  it,  very  well;  but  if  you  question  it,  an  enumera- 
tion of  cases  to  establish  it  (like  any  other  induction)  is. 
necessary.  Second,  the  minor  premise  states  a  fact  about 
a  particular  man.  Its  acceptability  is  determined  in  the 
same  manner  as  any  other  question  of  fact.  (See  last 
lesson.)  Granted  these  two  premises,  the  conclusion 
follows  as  a  natural  deduction. 

In  most  speeches,  deductive  argimients  are  not  pre- 
sented in  the  naked  syllogistic  form,  nor  are  all  the  parts 
always  given.  Yet  the  syllogism  is  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker.  A  concrete  example  of  the  style  used  in  actual 
presentation  is  to  be  found  in  the  following  extract  from 
the  speech  by  Joseph  Warren  on  the  Boston  Massacre, 
delivered  March  6,  1775. 

That  personal  freedom  is  the  natural  right  of  every  man,  and 
that  property,  or  an  exehisive  right  to  dispose  of  whatever  he 
has  honestly  acquired  by  his  own  labor,  necessarily  arises 
therefrom,  are  truths  which  common  sense  has  i)laced  beyond 
the  reach  of  contradiction.  And  no  man  or  body  of  men  can, 
without  l)eing  guilty  of  flagrant  injustice,  claim  the  right  to 
dispose  of  the  persons  or  acquisitions  of  any  other  man,  or 
body  of  men,  unless  it  can  be  proved  that  such  a  right  has 
arisen  from  some  compact  between  the  parties,  in  which  it 
has  been  explicitly  and  freely  granted. 


262  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

If  I  may  be  indulged  in  taking  a  retrospective  vieAv  of  the 
first  settlement  of  our  country,  it  will  be  easy  to  determine 
with  what  degree  of  justice  the  late  Parliament  of  Great 
Britain  have  assumed  the  power  of  giving  away  that  property 
which  the  Americans  have  earned  by  their  labor. 

Our  fathers,  having  nobly  resolved  never  to  wear  the  yoke 
of  despotism,  and  seeing  the  European  world,  at  that  time, 
through  indolence  and  cowardice,  falling  a  prey  to  tyranny, 
bravely  threw  themselves  upon  the  bosom  of  the  ocear>,  de- 
termined to  find  a  place  in  which  they  might  enjoy  their 
freedom,  or  perish  in  the  glorious  attempt.  Approving  heaven 
beheld  the  favorite  bark  dancing  upon  the  waves,  and  gra- 
ciouslj^  preserved  it  until  the  chosen  families  were  safely 
brought  to  these  western  regions.  They  found  the  land  swarm- 
ing with  savages,  who  threatened  death  with  every  kind  of 
torture.  But  savages  and  death  wdth  torture,  were  far  less 
terrible  than  slavery.     *     *     * 

From  these  savages,  our  ancestors  acquired  title  to  the  soil, 
and  the  business  was  transacted  by  the  parties  in  the  same 
independent  manner  that  it  would  have  been  had  neither  of 
them  ever  known  or  heard  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain. 

Having  -become  the  honest  proprietors  of  the  soil,  they  im- 
mediately applied  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  it ;  and  they 
soon  beheld  the  virgin  earth  teeming  with  richest  fruits,  a 
grateful  recompense  for  their  unwearied  toil.  The  fields  began 
to  wave  with  ripening  harvests,  and  the  late  barren  wilder- 
ness was  seen  to  blossom  like  a  rose.    *    *    * 

When,  at  an  infinite  expense  of  toil  and  blood,  this  widely 
extended  continent  had  been  cultivated  and  defended  .  *  *  * 
this  country  was  thought  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the 
British  ministry ;  and  the  only  successful  means  of  rendering 
the  colonies  serviceable  to  Britain,  was  adopted.  By  an  inter- 
course of  friendly  offices,  the  two  countries  became  so  united 
in  affection  that  they  thought  not  of  any  distinct  or  separate 
interests,  and  both  countri(>s  were  flourishing  and  happy. 
#     *     « 

This  pleasing  connection  might  have  continued,  but  un- 
happily for  us  and  unliappily  for  Britain,  the  madness  of  an 
avaricious  minister  has  brought  upon  the  stage,  discord,  envy, 
hate,  and  revenge,  Avith  civil  war  close  in  their  rear.  Sonic 
demon,  in  an  evil  hour,  suggested  to  a  short-sighted  financier 
the  hateful  project  of  transferring  the  whole  property  of  the 
king's  subjects  in  America  to  his  subjects  in  Britain.  The 
claim  of  the  Bi'itisli  pnrliament  to  tax  the  colonies  can  never 


TYPES  OF  ARGUMENT  263 

(k-  supported  but  by  such  a  transfer ;  for  the  rijrht  of  the 
House  of  Commons  of  Great  Britain  to  originate  any  tax  or 
grant  of  money,  is  altogether  derived  from  their  being  elected 
by  the  people  of  Great  Britain  to  act  for  them;  and  the  people 
of  Great  Britain  cannot  confer  upon  their  representatives  a 
right  to  give  or  grant  anything  which  they  themselves  have 
not  a  right  to  give  or  grant  personally. 

Therefore,  it  folloAvs  that  if  the  members  chosen  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Great  Britain,  to  represent  them  in  parliament,  have,  by 
virtue  of  their  being  so  chosen,  any  right  to  give  or  grant 
American  property,  or  to  lay  any  tax  upon  the  lands  or  per- 
sons of  the  colonists,  it  is  because  the  lands  and  people  in  the 
colonies  are.  hoiia  fide,  owned  by,  and  justly  belonging  to  the 
people  of  Great  Britain.  But  (as  has  been  before  observed) 
every  man  has  a  right  to  personal  freedom ;  consequently  a 
right  to  enjoy  what  is  acquired  by  his  own  labor.  And  it  is 
evident  that  the  property  in  this  country  has  been  acquired 
by  our  own  labor ;  it  is  the  duty  of  the  people  of  Great  Britain 
to  produce  some  compact  in  which  Ave  have  explicitly  given 
up  to  them  a  right  to  dispose  of  our  persons  or  property. 
Until  this  is  done,  every  attempt  of  theirs,  or  those  they  have 
deputed  to  act  for  them,  to  give  or  grant  any  part  of  our 
property,  is  directly  repugnant  to  every  principle  of  reason 
and  natural  justice.  And  I  maj'  boldly  say  that  no  such 
compact  exists. 

The    syllogisms    in    the   preceding    extract   might   be 
formulated  as  follows : 
I.     (a)  Personal  freedom  is  the  natural  right  of  every 
man. 
(b)   Free  persons  have  property  rights  in  the  fruits 

of  their  own  toil. 
Consequently,  every  man  has  property  rights  in  the 
fruits  of  his  own  toil. 
II.     (a)  Every  man  has   property   rights   in   what   he 
earns  by  toil, 
(b)  Americans  earned  America  through  their  own 

toil. 
Consequently,  Americans  hold  America  as  their  own 
property. 


264  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

III.  (a)   The  British  parliament  can  tax  or  dispose  of 

the  property  of  British  subjects  only, 
(b)  American  subjects  are  not  British  subjects. 
Consequently,  the  British  parliament  cannot  tax  or 
dispose  of  the  property  of  American  subjects. 

IV.  (a)   The  British  parliament  can  dispose  of  or  tax 

only  such  American  property  as  was  granted 
to  British  subjects  by  compact. 

(b)  No  American  property  was  granted  by  compact 
to  British  subjects. 

Consequently,  the  British  parliament  can. dispose  of 
or  tax  no  American  property. 

We  may  draw  a  few  conclusions  concerning  deductive 
reasoning  from  the  example  just  given. 

1.  In  actual  delivery  a  person  sometimes  omits  one 
or  more  parts  of  the  syllogism.  Thus,  in  the  first 
syllogism  above,  we  inserted  the  necessary"  minor  premise 
which  was  omitted  by  Warren  though  he  must  have  had 
it  in  mind.  In  the  following  argument,  the  major 
premise  is  left  out.  '*We  must  fight  for  America  in  this 
issue  (conclusion)  because  such  conduct  is  patriotic" 
(minor  premise).  The  omitted  major  would  be,  ''We 
must  do  whatever  is  patriotic."  If  we  wished,  we  could 
state  the  major  and  minor  premises  and  omit  the  con- 
clusion without  weakening  the  effect.  Indeed,  we  might 
even  express  only  the  minor  premise  and  still  convey 
our  meaning  and  its  reasons.  Tims  all  would  under- 
stand the  statement,  "To  fight  for  America  in  this  issue 
is  an  act  of  patriotism." 

Of  course,  a  speaker  should  have  the  whole  fabric  of 
argument  in  mind  even  though  he  may  choose  to  omit 
parts  in  delivery.  The  strength  of  the  argument  depends 
upon  the  parts  which  must  be  supplied  as  well  as  upon 
those  expressed. 


TYPES  OF  ARGr:\IEXT  265 

2.  Notice  tliat  tlio  conclusion  of  sylloiiisin  I  l)oconies 
tlic  major  premise  ot*  syHoi>ism  II.  Tliis  is  often  tlie 
case  and  sucli  a  chain  of  reasoning  does  not  necessitate 
a  re])etition  of  the  statement  which  constitutes  the  link. 

'.].  Sjilogistic  and  all  other  deductive  reasoning  rests 
on  a  few  principh^s  inherent  in  classification.  For 
instance,  in  syllogisms  I  and  II  the  principle  is :  What- 
ever is  true  of  a  whole  class  of  things  is  true  of  each 
member  of  the  class.  In  syllogisms  III  and  IV  the 
principle  is:  That  which  is  outside  of  a  class  (British 
property  in  this  case)  does  not  participate  in  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  class  (Parliamentary  control).  These 
and  numerous  other  principles  follow  from  the  mere 
classifying  of  all  the  things  of  the  universe  according  to 
various  characteristics  and  relationships.  We  shall 
give  one  more  illustration. 

All  desirable  citizens  are  literate. 

Some  Poles  are  desirable  citizens. 

Consequently:    Some  Poles  (not  all)  are  literate. 

The  principle  here  is  that  if  a  part  of  a  group  is 
included  in  another  group,  then  only  the  included  portion 
participates  in  the  characteristic  of  the  other  group. 

From  these  examples  and  principles,  as  well  as  others 
which  could  be  brought  forth,  we  get  a  notion  of  the 
nature  of  deduction.  The  following  three  checks  will 
insure  correct  deductions : 

1.  The  exact  meaning  of  each  expression  used  in  the 
reasoning — both  as  to  the  extent  of  its  application  and 
the  characteristics  it  denotes — must  be  kept  clearly  in 
mind. 

2.  Each  expression  must  be  used  in  one  sense  and  one 
sense  only. 

3.  A  clear  mental  picture  of  the  class  relationships 
must  be  kept  in  mind. 


266  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Let  us  apply  these  checks  to  a  few  typical  cases. 

(a)  All  members  of  labor  uiiioiis  are  efficient  workmen. 
The  three  carpenters  working  on  the  X  house  are 

not  union  men. 
Consequently,    the    three    X    carpenters    are    not 
efficient  workmen. 
Wrong  conclusion,  because  the  picture  of  a  wide  group 
of  efficient  workmen  including  union  men  and  possibly 
more  besides,  was  not  kept  clearly  in  mind.     If  it  had 
been,  the  three  X  carpenters  might  have  been  included 
in  the  efficient  group  as  well  as  union  men.     (Involves 
checks  1  and  3,  page  265.) 

(b)  American    citizens    should    always    support    that 

which  is  democratic. 
Woodrow  Wilson  is  the  Democratic  candidate. 
Consequently,     all     Americans     should     support 
Woodrow  Wilson. 
Wrong   conclusion,   because   the   word   democratic   is 
used  in  two  different  senses.     (Involves  check  2.) 

(c)  All  German  territory  is  civilized. 

No  Russian  province  is  German  territory. 
Consequently,  no  Russian  province  is  civilized. 
Wrong  conclusion.     (See  checks  1  and  3.) 

Analogy 

We  often  find  in  works  of  logic,  argumentation,  and 
public  speaking  a  third  form  of  argument  in  addition  to 
induction  and  deduction,  the  analogy.  But  to  us  this 
does  not  seem  to  constitute  a  third  and  different  kind  of 
reasoning.  The  essence  of  the  analogy  is  to  argue  that 
since  two  things  are  alike  in  many  respects  they  should 
also  be  alike  in  other  respects.  Once  Abraham  Lincoln 
was  asked  why  he  did  not  change  generals,  since  the 
campaign  seemed  to  be  going  against  the  man  in  com- 


TYPKS  OF  AErTT':\rEXT  267 

maiul.  IIo  replied,  '^I  do  not  tliiiik  it  is  a  ,i;ood  plan  to 
cliaiiiic  horses  while  crossiiiii-  a  stream."  This  was 
reasoning  from  analogy. 

,  To  us  it  seems  that  analogy  is  rather  the  means  of 
making  a  thing  clear  by  more  familiar  example  than 
reasoning  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  Or  where  the 
one  M'ho  advances  the  analogy  is  reasoning  rather  than 
illustrating,  the  process  is  in  reality  deductive.  For 
instance,  the  major  premise  in  the  Lincoln  argument  is 
"I  never  change  agents  in  the  midst  of  a  risky  enter- 
prise." The  minor  premise  is,  ''To  change  generals  in 
the  midst  of  tliis  campaign  is  to  change  agents  in  the 
midst  of  a  risky  enterprise"  and  consequently,  "I  will 
not  change  generals."  But  instead  of  saying  the  major 
premise  to  his  hearer,  in  general  or  abstract  language, 
he  represents  the  same  idea  by  saying,  "I  never  change 
l.orses  while  crossing  a  stream."  In  other  w^ords,  this 
i^  a  deductive  argument  with  a  particular  and  concrete 
case  used  to  represent,  in  a  familiar  and  forceful  manner, 
the  general  and  abstract  major  premise. 

Other  Deductive  Forms 

There  are  other  more  elaborate  forms  of  deductive 
reasoning,  some  of  which  we  shall  mention  briefly. 
Observe  that  the  checks  already  given  for  deductive 
reasoning  may  be  applied  to  these  forms  as  well  as  to 
the  simpler  syllogisms, 
(a)   Disjunctive  reasoning. 

Major :     He  is  either  a  fool  or  a  knave. 

1.  Minor:     He  is  a  fool  and  (conclusion)  not  a  knave. 

2.  Minor:     He  is  a  knave  and  (conclusion)  not  a  fool. 

3.  Minor:     He  is  not  a  fool  and   (conclusion)    is  a 
knave. 

4.  ]\rinor:     He  is  not  a  knave  and  (conclusion)  is  a 
fool. 


268  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(b)  Hyi^otbetical  reasoning 

]\[ajor :     If  this  is  gold,  it  will  stand  the  acid  test. 

1.  Minor:  It  is  gold;  therefore  (conclusion)  it  will 
stand  the  acid  test. 

2.  Minor:  It  is  not  gold;  (conclusion)  it  will  not 
stand  the  acid  test. 

3.  Minor:  It  will  stand  the  acid  test;  (conclusion) 
it  may  be  gold. 

4.  Minor:  It  will  not  stand  the  acid  test;  (conclu- 
sion) it  is  not  gold. 

(c)  Dilemma 

Major :    If  he  is  guilty,  he  must  apologize  or  resign. 

Minor:     He  is  gTiilty.     Or,  He  is  not  guilty. 

Conclusion :  He  must  apologize,  etc.  Or,  He  must  not 
apologize,  etc. 

Besides  this,  there  are  still  other  forms  of  dilemma. 
Furthermore,  there  are  so  many  forms  of  syllogistic  and 
extra-syllogistic  reasoning,  that  if  we  offered  twice  as 
many  examples  more,  the  whole  list  would  not  be 
exhausted.  But  the  checks  given  will  insure  safe  naviga- 
tion on  the  whole  sea  of  deduction,  no  matter  how  various 
and  high  the  waves  may  be. 

A  speaker  must  determine  whether  an  argument  is 
deductive  or  inductive  and  then  apply  the  checks  which 
the  form  requires.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  reasoning 
is  always  inductive  when  the  conclusion  is  general  and 
depends  for  its  nature  upon  manj^  observed  facts,  each 
one  of  which  contributes  to  determine  the  nature  of  the 
conclusion.  Eeasoning  is  deductive  when  the  conclusion 
depends  explicitly  or  implicitly  upon  truth  found  in 
premises  which  wore  previouslj^  accepted  as  true. 

AVith  this  general  summary,  we  shall  close  the  lesson 
on  formal  reasoning.  The  next  lesson  will  l)e  given  over 
to  directions  for  the  drawing  up  of  a  brief  for  an  argu- 
ment  and    some   practical    instructions    concerning   the 


TYPES  OF  ARGU.AIENT  269 

treatment  of  a  ])ai'ticiilar  audience  and  a  particular 
opponent  in  an  argumentative  contest.  As  a  good 
theoretical  preparation  for  that  lesson,  we  urge  that  the 
student  be  sure  of  his  mastery  of  this  lesson  and  the  one 
which  preceded  it. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  WORK. 

Tlic  written  excrcisc-s  in  this  entire  lesson  should  be 
earcfiilly  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
,.;^->^  in  your  notebook. 


eis( 


First  Day. — Read  the  lesson  at  least  three  times  and  then  in 
two  columns  eompare  and  contrast  the  characteristics  of 
inductive  and  deductive  reasoning.     Thus : 

Inductive  ,  Deductive 

1.  I         1. 

Second  Day. — Prove  in  a  well  written  out,  inductive  argument 
one  of  the  following  generalizations : 

1.  All  wars  have  been  caused  by  selfishness. 

2.  Mechanical  inventions  have  promoted  the  happiness 
of  mankind. 

3.  The  genius  has  always  been  the  man  with  an  enor- 
mous capacity  for  work. 

4.  The  commission  form  of  government  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  the  United  States. 

5.  The  unionizing  of  labor  has  promoted  true  social 
progress. 

(Take  either  affirmative  or  negative  and  if  these  generali- 
zations do  not  appeal  to  you,  formulate  one  of  your  o^^^l, 
the  fact-support  of  which  is  accessible  to  you.) 

Third  Day. — List  the  special  cases  used  in  the  argument  written 
out  on  the  second  day.  With  these  single  words  in  a  list 
as  the  outline,  orally  deliver  the  argument.  Do  not  try  to 
rememl)er  words  you  wrote ;  simply  develop  your  ideas 
extemporaneously,  using  the  list  of  single  instances  as  your 
only  guide. 

Fourih  Day. — Read  some  modern  arguments  on  current  topics 
— in   such  magazines  as   The  Survey,   The   New  Bepuhlic, 


270  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

North  America)!  Review,  The  Ouflool\  and  the  editorial 
pages  of  good  newspapers.  Select  some  of  the  arguments 
and  analyze  them.  Attach  the  clippings  to  your  analyses. 
The  analyses  should  show  the  forms  of  reasoning,  listing 
the  conclusions  and  the  cases  to  support  inductions  as  well 
as  premises  to  support  deductions.  The  suppressed  parts 
must  also  be  indicated.  Add  your  criticism,  pointing  out 
weaknesses  or  elements  of  strength. 

Fifth  Day. — Beginning  with  one  of  the  following  as  a  major 
premise,  write  out  a  deductive  argument  in  favor  of  some 
particular  reform. 

1.  Every  child  should  be  allowed  full  time  for  physical 
and  mental  development. 

2.  The  penalties  of  war  should  be  visited  only  upon  the 
armed  forces  of  the  nations  engaged  in  war. 

3.  Every  man  has  an  equal  right  to  the  free  gifts  of 
nature. 

4.  The  safeguarding  of  property  rights  is  the  foundation 
of  a  sound,  modern  state. 

5.  No  civilized  government  should  act  upon  motives  of 
retaliation  or  revenge. 

(Take  either  the  affirmative  or  negative  of  these  or  add  a 
general  principle  of  your  own,  which  you  believe  is  funda 
mentally  true.) 

Write  out  your  argument  in  full  and  accompany  it  with 
a  syllogistic  analysis  similar  to  the  one  on  page  263  of  this 
lesson. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  tliis  lesson.  Tli(>y 
are  suggestire  merely,  dealing  largtdy  with  tlie  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  Which  has  greater  weight  iu  an  argument,  knowledge  of 
facts  or  skill  in  the  forms  of  reasoning?  If  an  opponent  deliv- 
ered a  very  masterful  argument  of  convincing  form,  but  you 
knew  one  fact  that  did  not  agree  with  his  conclusion,  how  would 
you  refute  him? 

2.  What  is  a  perfect  induction? 

8.  What  is  an  imperfect  induction?  Are  most  inductions 
perfect  or  imperfect? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  a  hasty  generalization  ? 

5.  Why  must  we  check  up  generalizations  and  especially 
those  which  are  obtained  through  imperfect  inductions? 

6.  What  are  the  checks  for  a  generalization  of  a  classifica- 
tion relationship? 

7.  Why  must  additional  checks  be  applied  to  a  generaliza- 
tion of  causal  relationship?    What  are  the  additional  checks? 

8.  How  do  you  like  the  style  of  j\Ir.  Perkins'  argument? 
Does  it  seem  too  full  of  feeling?  Does  he  use  too  many  adjectives 
which  show  that  he  is  prejudiced?  Is  his  style  almost  as  l)ad 
as  that  of  certain  "wild-eyed  radicals?" 

9.  W^iat  do  you  think  of  Dr.  Wiley's  style?  What  are 
its  good  points?    What  are  its  bad  points? 

10.  What  is  a  syllogism?  What  is  a  premise?  What  is  a 
conclusion  ? 

11.  What  do  you  think  of  Warren's  style?  Is  it  too 
pompous  for  a  modern  audience?    Do  j^ou  like  such  expressions 

271 


272  EFFECTIVE  ri'BLlC  SPEAKING 

as  "bravely  threw  themselves  upon  the  breast  of  the  ocean"  and 
"barren  wilderness  was  seen  to  blossom  like  a  rose?" 

12.  Is  it  necessary,  in  actual  delivery,  to  give  all  the  parts 
of  a  syllogism  ? 

13.  AVhat  are  the  three  checks  to  insure  correct  deductive 
reasoning  ? 

14.  What   is  the  value   of  analogy?     Is  it  chiefly   argu- 
mentative or  literary? 

15.  How  is  the  dilemma  related  to  the  disjunctive  and  tlie 
liypothetical  syllogism? 


LESSON  15 

ARGUMENTATION 

1.     Briefing 

The  importance  of  organization  and  tlie  value  of  a 
definitely  drawn  up  plan  for  any  kind  of  speech  has 
already  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  student.  In 
Lesson  1,  the  use  of  a  simple  yet  logical  outline  as  the 
groundwork  of  speech  delivery  was  explained.  Such  out- 
lines, with  a  small  number  of  divisions  and  subdivisions, 
have  been  referred  to  again  and  again  during  the  course 
and  especially  in  the  first  six  lessons.  Now,  while  we  are 
concentrating  upon  argumentation,  we  must  go  more 
minutely  into  the  details  of  the  technical  brief.  In 
common  with  the  outlines  mentioned,  such  a  brief  is 
drawn  up  only  after  ample  material  has  been  gathered 
and  digested.  In  our  discussion  of  the  form  of  the  brief, 
therefore,  we  shall  assume  that  reading  and  note-taking, 
or  some  other  means  of  acquiring  information,  has  gone 
before. 

Tlie  simple  outlines  were  merely  guides  for  the 
speaker  to  follow  during  his  delivery.  The  rigorous, 
argumentative  briefs  are  useful  not  only  in  this  way,  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  they  also  serve  far  wider  purposes. 
Such  a  brief  is  a  storehouse  of  all  the  available  material 
of  value  to  establish  a  certain  proposition.  Like  all  good 
storehouses  or  filing  systems,  it  must  be  designed  to  hold 
its  contents  in  classified  groups.  Furthermore,  all  the 
opinions  to  be  maintained  and  to  be  related  in  a  running 
273 


274  effp:ctive  public  speaking 

argTiment,  must  be  recorded  in  such  a  manner  that  (1) 
the  particular  strength  or  weakness  of  each  assertion  will 
be  revealed,  (2)  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  fact- 
supports  will  be  evident,  and  (3)  the  nature  and  trust- 
worthiness of  the  sources  may  be  manifest.  Consequently, 
after  all  his  careful  research,  a  speaker,  in  drawing  up 
his  brief,  arranges  his  arg-umentative  material  in  a 
manner  which  will  not  only  store  it  systematically  for 
reference,  but  which  will  also  expose  and  give  warning  of 
any  weakness  which  may  exist. 

But  what  are  the  parts  of  a  brief?  They  are  similar 
in  many  respects  to  the  parts  of  the  outline  of  any  speech  ; 
but  those  portions  which  involve  care  in  statement  and 
logical  form  will  be  worked  out  with  more  than  ordinary 
patience.  Obviously,  the  body  of  the  brief  is  the  main 
line  of  argument ;  but  just  as  the  body  of  any  other  speech 
requires  a  preparatory  portion,  so  also  an  introduction  is 
necessary  here.  Besides  this,  and  a  conclusion,  we  shall 
enumerate  the  parts  of  a  typical  brief. 

(a )     Tlw  Proposition 

The  proposition  is  a  statement  of  the  opinion  which  the 
speaker  is  about  to  demonstrate.  It  should  be  clearly 
formulated  at  the  head  of  the  brief  and  have  the  follow- 
ing characteristics : 

1.  It  must  express  a  logically  real  proposition.  We 
mean  that  it  must  be  capable  of  proof  or  disproof  if  an 
honest  effort  to  demonstrate  it  is  made.  If  the  proposi- 
tion, however,  be  unreal,  it  is,  on  its  face,  not  susceptible 
of  demonstration,  pro  or  con.  For  instance,  one  who  says, 
"The  government  ought  not  to  undertake  activities  out- 
side its  proper  field  of  action",  is  offering  an  unreal 
proposition — one  which  on  its  face  cannot  be  proved.  He 
practically  says,  "The  government  ought  not  to  do  what 
it  ought  not  to  do."     Tliere  is  nothing  here  to  argue 


ARGUMENTATION  275 

about.  There  is  a  tautologous  or  identical,  empty  sliell 
of  assertion.  No  issue  is'  raised;  there  is  nothing  to 
prove;  in  one  sense,  the  thing  is  self-evident.  Now  if 
the  proposition  were,  ''To  conduct  the  telegraph  and 
telephone  business  of  the  country,  is  a  proper  govern- 
mental activity,"  we  would  have  a  real  proposition 
worthy  of  investigation,  to  be  settled  affirmatively  or 
negatively.  A  speaker  could  expound  his  concept  of 
"proper  governmental  activity"  and  then  demonstrate 
that  the  conducting  of  the  telegraph  and  telephone  busi- 
ness of  the  country  comes  within  the  field.  Here  a  rela- 
tionship capable  of  proof  or  disproof  is  stated  and  the 
proposition  is  real.  Since  we  sometimes  say  things  which 
are  incapable  of  demonstration,  it  is  well  for  one  about 
to  argue  an  opinion  to  formulate  it  carefully  in  a  proposi- 
tion and  then  to  examine  that  proposition  to  see  if  it  is 
real  and  worthy  of  argument. 

2.  The  proposition  should  be  clear  and  unmistakable 
in  meaning. 

3.  It  should  not  be  complicated  with  numerous  issues 
and  modifications.  If,  on  first  writing,  it  seems  too 
intricate,  try  to  make  a  broad  but  simple  statement  which 
will  include  all  you  have  in  mind. 

(h)     The  Introduction 

Like  all  speeches,  the  argument  usually  requires  an 
introduction.  For  the  general  purposes  of  an  introduc- 
tion, see  Lessons  3  and  4.  It  will  be  noticed  that  a  part 
to  put  the  audience  in  a  favorable  emotional  state  is 
important.  But  in  the  brief  this  part  is  not  written  down. 
The  speaker  adjusts  himself  to  the  prevailing  atmos- 
phere, extemporaneously;  the  brief  contains  only  matter 
related  to  the  intellectual  grasp  of  ideas  and  their  logical 
relationship.  Therefore  the  legitimate  introduction  to 
an  arg-ument  is  designed  to  educate  the  hearers  so  that 


276  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

they  can  follow  tlie  reasoning  processes  wliicli  logically 
lead  to  an  acceptance  of  the  main  proposition.  The  most 
desirable  arrangement  of  this  material  is  as  follows  : 

(a)  General  survey  of  the  situatio'n  or  problem. — Here 
the  speaker  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  occasion  for  hold- 
ing an  opinion  and  trying  to  demonstrate  it  to  others.  It 
is  a  sort  of  comprehensive  ontline  to  enable  the  hearer 
to  get  his  bearing. 

(b)  Detailed  facts  of  informational  value. — Here  is 
presented  knowledge  necessary  to  an  understanding  of 
the  arguments  which  are  to  follow.  More  facts  are  usu- 
ally recorded  than  will  be  expressed  in  actual  delivery  of 
the  introduction.  They  are  all  recorded  in  this  place  for 
convenience  and  are  drawn  forth  or  left  alone  according 
to  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion.  Before  some  audiences, 
the  initial,  educational  matter  may  be  reduced  very  much, 
while  other  audiences  will  need  not  only  all  that  is  avail- 
able, but  will  need  all  of  it  repeated  in  various  terms. 
Sometimes  it  is  wise  not  to  mention  some  of  the  facts 
here  recorded,  early  in  the  argument,  but  to  reserve  them 
to  be  interwoven  in  the  argimient  proper. 

(c)  Waived  and  granted  matter  is  next  indicated  so  as 
to  narrow  the  field  of  discussion.  By  tvaived  matter,  we 
mean  matter  which  is  indeed  related  to  the  general  subject 
but  which  we  wish  to  set  aside  (without  influencing  any 
opinion  about  it  one  way  or  the  other)  in  order  to  limit 
ourselves  to  a  selected  field.  For  instance,  if  we  were 
arguing  that  ^' Women  ought  to  be  allowed  to  vote  for 
federal  officers,"  we  might  well  waive  or  set  aside  con- 
siderations of  constitutionality.  To  be  sure  the  women 
could  not  be  granted  such  suffrage  unless  all  differences 
under  these  considerations  were  settled,  but  we  wish  to 
reserve  that  phase  of  possible  disagreement  and  confine 
our  attention  to  the  practical  effects  of  granting  the 
suft'rage  whether  it  is  constitutional  or  not.  AVaiv('(l 
matter  lias  no  influence  upon  the  discussion  as  limited. 


ARGUMENTATION  277 

Granted  matter,  on  tlip  other  hand,  is  something 
accepted  as  true  and  of  full  weight  in  the  argument.  It  is 
not  demonstrated,  because  it  is  accepted  as  true.  It  must 
be  reckoned  with  and  given  its  proper  place  in  the  forma- 
tion of  final  opinions. 

(d)  Definition  of  terms. — When  necessary,  terms  are 
defined  so  that  when  they  are  used  there  will  arise  in  the 
minds  of  the  hearers  exactly  the  same  notions  as  exist 
in  the  mind  of  the  speaker.  For  technique  of  definition, 
see  Lesson  12,  p.  222. 

(e)  The  main  issues  are  next  enumerated.  They  are 
subordinate  propositions  which,  if  accepted,  together 
give  complete  logical  support  to  the  principal  proposi- 
tion. Just  as  that  proposition  sums  up  the  final  opinion 
on  the  whole  field  of  discussion,  so  these  issues  sum  up  the 
opinions  which  arise  from  a  consideration  of  logical 
subdivisions  into  which  the  wiiole  field  naturally  falls. 
It  is  obvious  that  these  subdivisions  must  not  overlap 
and  they  must,  taken  together,  cover  the  whole  ground, 
omitting  nothing. 

The  arrangement  of  these  issues  in  a  certain  order  of 
sequence  is  governed  by  the  principles  of  organization 
explained  in  Lesson  5. 

(f)  A  restatement  of  the  proposition  is  necessary  at 
this  point  because  when  first  stated  it  was  not  fully 
explained.  Furthermore,  it  is  well  to  restate  the  proposi- 
tion just  at  the  beginning  of  the  details  of  proof  which 
make  up  the  argument  proper. 

(c)     The  Body  of  the  Brief 

This  portion  must  be  analyzed  carefully.  The  paper 
should  be  ruled  so  that  there  are  two  broad  columns  and, 
to  the  right,  one  narrow  column.  Before  discussing  the 
details  as  arranged  in  these  columns,  it  will  be  well  to 
read  through  a  type  brief.  It  is  immaterial  whether  or 
not  we  agree  with  the  proposition. 


278  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


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ARGUMENTATION  279 


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280  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


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ARGUMENTATION 


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282  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


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ARGUMENTATION  283 

ConcerniiHj  the  tliree  columns. — The  backbone  of  tlie 
inference  column  is  made  up  of  the  issues.  Each  one  of 
them  is  an  inference  and  all  of  the  subordinate  state- 
ments which  are  offered  as  supports  are  also  inferences. 
These  issues  should  be  examined  systematically.  In  the 
first  place,  they  are  propositions  just  as  the  main  resolu- 
tion is  a  proposition,  and  consequently  should  be  tested 
as  to  reality,  clearness,  and  simplicity.  (See  remarks 
under  the  heading,  ''The  Proposition.")  After  being 
satisfied  as  to  the  form  of  each  of  your  issues,  make  up 
your  mind  concerning  the  following:  (a)  Is  each  issue 
distinct  from  every  other  one?  (b)  Are  they  all,  taken 
together,  adequate  to  lead  you  to  infer  the  main  resolu- 
tion from  themf    (c)  Are  they  properly  supported? 

This  brings  us  to  the  question  of  support.  In  Lesson 
13  (pages  233-237,  especially),  it  was  explained  that  an 
opinion  is  supported  either  by  facts  which  it  properly 
generalizes,  or  by  other  opinions  wdiicli  are  acceptable 
and  from  which  it  can  be  inferred.  Observe  that  in  the 
type  brief,  issue  A  is  supported  by  opinions  1,  2  and  3. 
Each  of  them,  in  turn,  is  derived  from  other  statements, 
(a)  and  (b).  These  last  statements  rest  on  facts  of  some 
sort.  In  the  cases  of  A,  1(a)  and  A,  1(b)  the  facts  are 
enumerated  in  the  fact  column,  but  in  the  cases  of  A,  3(a) 
and  A,  3(b),  the  facts  are  not  enumerated,  though  the 
source  of  the  opinions  is  recorded.  If  we  accept  the  word 
of  Worcester  and  adopt  his  opinion,  well  and  good;  but 
if  not,  the  facts  of  the  case  should  be  looked  up.  Inci- 
dentally, it  is  a  bad  policy  to  adopt  the  opinions  of  others 
without  getting  the  facts  which  influenced  them. 

It  is  now  clear  that  the  inference  column  is  made  up 
of  a  series  of  propositions  which  hang  together  so  as  to 
lead  logically  to  an  acceptance  of  the  main  resolution. 
Every  one  of  these  propositions  should  be  tested  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  first  one  aiad  its  issues. 


284  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

The  facts  in  the  second  column  slioiihl  be  abundant. 
Furthermore,  the  source  column  must  contain  the  names 
of  witnesses  and  sources  so  that  the  acceptability,  credi- 
bility, and  conditions  of  observation  may  be  passed  upon. 
The  place  where  the  evidence  is  to  be  found  should  be 
noted  in  sufficient  detail  to  enable  others  to  get  it  readily 
and  read  it  in  context. 

For  faults  in  reasoning,  carefully  read  the  inference 
column ;  to  discover  lack  of  facts,  read  the  fact  column ; 
and  to  check  up  authorities  and  sources,  consult  the  last 
column.  This  form  of  brief  provides  not  only  an  orderly 
form-arrangement  of  material  but  also  a  basis  of 
criticism. 

2.     Floor  Tactics 

It  is  one  thing  to  have  a  clear  line  of  reasoning  in  your 
own  head  and  quite  another  to  keep  it  clear  in  the  heads 
of  your  hearers.  Argument  is  above  all  others  the  form 
of  discourse  in  which  you  must  impress  not  only  the  final 
effect  or  conclusion,  but  also  the  steps  by  which  that  con- 
clusion is  reached.  For  this  reason  the  speaker  must, 
from  beginning  to  end,  be  especially  simple  and  clear. 
There  must  be  no  unnecessary  ornamentation  which 
might  tend,  in  the  slightest  degree,  to  obscure  the  struc- 
ture of  the  entire  speech.  As  each  point  is  presented, 
explained,  and  proved,  it  must  be  fully  driven  home  and 
then  its  exact  place  in  the  line  of  reasoning  insisted  upon. 
Such  connectives  as  these  will  abound:  ''Having 
proved,"  etc.,  "let  us  next,"  etc.,  ''If  this  be  indeed  so, 
then  it  naturally  follows,"  etc.  In  short,  an  abundance 
of  connectives  must  be  used  to  make  the  relationship  of 
the  parts  of  the  whole  structure  clear. 

Then  also,  frequent  repetitions  and  summaries  are 
necessary.  As  one  announces  an  issue  and  then  goes  into 
the  details  of  proof,  the  listener  is  apt  to  forget  the 
larger  bearing  of  that  issue  as  his  mind  is  engaged  in 


ARGUMENTATION  285 

approving-  or  rojecting  tlic  evidence.  Consequently,  after 
a  contention  is  established,  it  should  be  restated  and  then 
related  to  the  next.  The  ideal  is  for  the  debater  to  keep 
the  whole  contention  clearly  in  mind  as  he  takes  up  each 
detail,  justifies  it,  and  places  it  in  the  whole  scheme. 

In  handling  figures,  be  careful  not  to  bewilder  the 
audience.  It  is  unwise  to  read  off  formidable  lists  of 
statistics  with  items  extending  into  six- or  more  places. 
The  mind  cannot  retain  or  grasp  the  significance  of  great 
sequences  of  numbers.  The  better  procedure  is  to  say 
something  like  this:  *'The  report  of  the  government 
shows  that  such  and  such  a  country  sent  to  the  United 
States  an  average  of  500,000  barrels  of  sugar  each  year 
for  a  period  of  twenty  years  before  the  tariff  was 
imposed.  After  that  the  exportation  dropped  to  a  little 
less  than  100,000  barrels.  These  are  round  figures;  the 
exact  amounts  I  have  if  they  are  wanted."  Be  clear,  and 
at  the  same  time  make  it  evident  that  your  information 
is  exact  and  trustworthy.  A  comprehensive  grasp  of  the 
import  of  a  mass  of  figures  is  to  be  offered  rather  than 
the  befuddling  figures  themselves.  Many  things  which 
can  be  taken  in  by  the  eye  from  the  printed  page  cannot 
be  received  by  the  ear  from  spoken  language. 

3.     Burden  of  Proof 

Eemember  that  ''he  who  asserts  must  prove."  This 
old  adage  simply  means  that  one  who  asserts  something- 
new — not  yet  generally  accepted — has  the  responsibility 
of  demonstrating  its  acceptability.  While  we  know  that 
there  are  many  things  quietly  received  without  question 
as  the  established  and  true  order  of  the  universe,  which 
will  some  day  be  shown  to  be  unacceptable,  still  we  realize 
that  they  do  have  all  the  presumptions  in  their  favor  and 
one  who  would  assail  them  must  fight.  One  who  main- 
tains that  some  established  thing  is  wrong  or  who  states 


286  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

a  totally  new  idea,  must  undertake  the  task  of  proving 
his  assertions.  It  will  not  avail  him  to  assert  and  re- 
assert; he  must  prove.  A  speaker  who  is  advancing  an 
argument  bears  such  a  burden  of  proof.  If  he  succeeds 
in  educating  his  hearers  and  leading  them  to  reason  as 
he  reasons,  he  is  said  to  have  successfully  carried  the 
burden  and  shifted  it  to  one  who  would  deny  his 
contentions. 

Therefore,  in  an  arginnent,  be  careful  of  what  you 
assert.  Make  no  wild  assertions  prompted  by  bitterness 
or  dissatisfaction,  which  you  cannot  prove  by  a  calm 
weighing  of  evidence.  Advance_Qiib"  those  contentions 
about  Avhich  you  have  adequate  knojvvledgei then  go  about 
establishing  them  in  an  inexorably  logical  manner.  Obvi- 
ously an  honest  man  who  is  a  clear  thinker,  will  be  sparing 
in  his  assertions  and  bountiful  in  the  evidence  to  support 
what  he  does  assert. 

While  the  unflinching  acceptance  of  the  responsibility 
to  prove  may  seem  hard,  there  is  this  consolation — you 
can  put  an  opponent's  nose  to  the  same  grindstone.  If 
one  opposed  to  you  makes  a  wild,  unsupported  statement, 
do  not  deny  it;  simply  point  out  that  it  is  an  unsupported 
assertion  which  cannot  be  fairly  accepted  until  demon- 
strated. If  you  should  say,  ''It  is  false,"  you  yourself 
have  made  an  assertion  and  assumed  the  responsibility 
to  prove  it  false.  But  if  you  simply  call  for  proof,  you 
clearly  throw  the  burden  on  him  and  assume  none  your- 
self. Just  as  you  will  be  careful  in  making  your  own 
assertions,  so  also  you  will  be  careful  not  to  assume 
unnecessary  burdens  by  branding  other  people's  asser- 
tions as  false,  but  you  will  show  the  unacceptability  of 
unsupported  statements,  thus  making  clear  the  burden  an 
opponent  must  bear.  Sometimes,  when  you  have  over- 
whelming evidence  against  his  assertion,  you  may  be 
willing  to  deny  and  then  advance  your  destructive  argu- 
ment, but  even  then  it  would  be  better  policy  to  call  for 


ARGUMENTATION  287 

proof  and  bring  forth  your  lieavy  guns  only  after  hv  liad 
wasted  his  time  witli  refutable  argnments. 

4,     General  Bearing 

Finally,  preserve  a  bearing  of  fairness  and  calm.  One 
who  reasons  must  not  be  excited  and  he  must  not  seem 
excited.  Prejudice,  bitterness,  hatred,  and  other  strong 
feeling  not  only  tend  to  befuddle  the  thinking  of  the 
speaker  but  they  also  give  the  audience  the  impression 
of  partisanship  and  bias.  Of  course,  if  you  are  talking 
to  those  who  hold  the  same  views  as  you  and  do  not  need 
to  be  convinced,  get  as  bitter,  indignant,  and  excited  as 
you  please ;  but  in  such  a  case,  you  are  not  arguing,  you 
are  exhorting.  Where  argument  is  necessary,  calm  is 
necessary. 

This  admonition  is  not  at  all  intended  to  disparage  the 
natural  enthusiasm  which  goes  with  strong,  forceful 
delivery.  There  is  a  great  difference  between  the  force 
resulting  from  the  stimulus  of  interest  and  intense  appli- 
cation, and  the  emotional  outburst  which  is  fanned  by 
])rejudice  and  intolerance.  If  the  audience  gets  the 
impression  that  your  feeling  is  stronger  than  your  judg- 
ment, your  argument  will  be  weakened  in  their  eyes. 

In  meeting  an  opponent  and  in  addressing  a  strange 
audience,  always  be  most  courteous  and  more  than  fair. 
One  who  argues  contends  against  fallacy,  not  against 
persons;  he  deals  in  truths,  not  in  personalities.  His 
preparation  consists  in  thorough,  patient  research;  his 
floor  generalship  consists  in  control  of  himself. 

Assignment  of  Work 

Tlic  written  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  your'  notchook. 

First  Day. — Find  in  the  Congressional  Record  or  some  book  of 
speeches,  or  even  in  some  magazine  article,  an  argument. 


288  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Read  it  carefully  and  then  east  it  in  the  brief  form  described 
in  this  lesson.     Place  this  brief  in  your  notebook,  with  an 
appended  criticism  of  possible  Aveaknesses. 

Second  Day. — Carefully  study  the  type  brief  and  note  (a) 
whether  any  particular  argument  in  the  first  column  is 
logically  weak,  (b)  if  there  is  any  statement  not  fully  war- 
ranted by  the  facts  ottered  opposite  it,  and  (c)  where 
arguments  are  directly  from  authority. 

Third  Day. — Recast  all  the  material  in  the  type  brief  in  a  new 
brief  using  the  following  as  the  main  issues : 

A — Retention  of  the  Philippines  will  benefit  the  United 
States. 

B — Retention  of  the  Philippines  will  benefit  the 
Philippines. 

C — Retention  of  the  Philippines  will  benefit  the  civilized 
world. 

Fourth  and  Fifth  Days. — Formulate  a  proposition  on  any  subject 
on  which  you  have  convictions  and  to  the  facts  of  which  you 
have  access.  Gather  the  material  as  thoroughly  as  possi])le 
and  construct  a  good  brief. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowled;i;e  of  tlie  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  sin/fiefifirc  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook   for   future  reference. 

1.  How  does  a  technical  brief  differ  from  a  simple  outline? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  real  proposition,  in  contradistinction 
to  one  which  is  logically  unreal? 

3.  In  the  introduction,  why  do  we  give  first  a  general 
survey,  then  detailed  facts,  etc.  ?  Is  there  any  principle  of 
procedure  here?  Is  there  a  gradual  focusing  and  narrowing  of 
the  attention? 

4.  Is  there  any  set  way  of  determining  just  what  the  main 
issues  of  a  given  proposition  should  be  ?  Can  the  same  opinion 
be  established  by  dividing  it  in  different  ways  and  summing  up 
each  division  with  its  own  proposition  ?  Can  you  cut  up  a  pie 
in  more  than  one  way  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  well  to  restate  the  main  proposition  just  before 
taking  up  the  details  of  proof? 

6.  Why  should  every  entry  in  the  inference  column  be  in 
the  form  of  a  complete  proposition  ? 

7.  What  are  the  tests  to  which  any  proposition  may  be 
subjected  ? 

8.  Why  is  it  unwise  to  adopt  the  opinions  of  others  with- 
out checking  up  the  facts  to  which  they  had  original  access  ? 

9.  What  do  we  mean  by  connectives  which  may  be  used 
during  delivery  ?  What  is  their  importance  in  the  argumentative 
form  of  discourse?  Do  they  promote  beauty  in  other  forms  of 
composition  ? 

10.  Are    repetitions    and    summaries   of   much    value    in    a 
debate  or  straight  argument  ? 

11.  What  is  the  ideal  to  be  attained  in  the  presentation  of 
a  mass  of  statistics  to  an  audience  ? 

289 


290  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

12.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  burden  of  proof? 

13.  Do  yoii  know  of  cases  in  real  life  where  people  who 
are  proposing  new  things  act  as  though  they  did  not  expect  to 
bear  the  burden  of  proof? 

14.  Is  it  well  to  make  sweeping  denials  of  the  assertions  of 
opponents  when  they  are  not  properly  supported?  What  is  a 
better  policy  ? 

15.  What  is  your  ideal  of  the  general  bearing  of  one  who  is 
trying  to  convince  by  appeals  to  the  judgment?  Is  any  other 
kind  of  appeal  logical?  Does  the  recognition  of  the  value  of 
calm  logic  in  any  way  overlook  the  possibility  of  other  kinds' 
of  appeal? 


y' 


LESSON  16 


THE  APPEAL  TO  ACTION 


As  a  practical  success  in  the  world  of  men,  the 
speaker  is  judged  according  to  his  skill  in  moving  others 
to  action.  To  sway  the  multitude — that  is  the  pinnacle 
of  eloquence.  What  avails  a  beautifully  modulated 
voice  if  its  pleadings  alter  not  the  course  of  human 
events!  Why  convince  men  if  the  beliefs  implanted 
work  themselves  not  out  in  deeds?  One  who  speaks 
pleasingly,  who  marshals  his  ideas  clearly,  and  yet  who 
cannot  secure  action,  falls  short  of  oratorical  effective- 
ness. In  this  lesson,  we  shall  consider  the  aspects  of 
speaking  which  are  most  closely  connected  with  the 
obtaining  of  action  from  the  hearers. 

1.     Nature  of  Action 
(a)  Conscious  Action 

All  actions  are  movements  in  response  to  some  exciting- 
cause  or  stimulus.  This  cause  may  be  outside  the  indi- 
vidual, as  a  concrete  situation  which  he  faces,  or  it  may 
be  an  image  or  idea  arising  in  his  own  mind.  To  put 
it  another  way,  a  man  seeing  a  cigar  in  a  store  window 
has  a  train  of  ideas  started  by  the  sight  of  that  cigar, 
which  leads  him  to  go  in,  buy  it,  and  finally  smoke  it; 
or,  while  in  his  office,  he  may  get  the  notion  that  a 
cigar  would  be  very  gratifying  and  consequently  send 
out  for  one  to  smoke. 

Again,  a  man  may  come  into  a  room,  sit  at  his  desk, 
and  then,  feeling  a  draft,  close  the  window.  This  is  the 
291 


K 


292  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

direct  result  of  the  real  stimulus  of  the  cold  air.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  might  imagine  the  possibility  of  the 
draft  and,  because  of  that  mental  state,  close  the  win- 
dow before  actually  feeling  any  inconvenience. 

Yet  these  two  causes  of  action  are  essentially  alike, 
for  w^hether  prompted  from  without  or  within,  the  mind 
does  have  a  notion  of  an  existing  situation,  a  notion  of 
a  possible  alternative  and  a  desire  to  secure  the  more 
preferable  state.  The  end  in  view  Works  itself  out  in 
action.  We  call  such  acts,  where  the  person  is  aware 
of  the  stimulus  and  the  fact  that  he  is  acting,  conscious 
acts. 

^  When  a  speaker  wishes  his  hearers  to  perform  a 
conscious  act,  he  does  not,  as  a  rule,  have  a  concrete 
external  stimulus.  Rather  does  he,  by  means  of  w^ords, 
arouse  suggestive  ideas  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers. 
By  calling  up  stimulating  images,  by  outlining  truths, 
and  by  drawing  logical  conclusions,  he  puts  the  powder 
of  action,  a  sort  of  explosive  force,  into  their  minds  just 
as  w^ell  as  if  he  could  lead  them  to  a  place  to  witness  the 
very  things  about  which  he  talks.  He  makes  them  see 
' '  with  the  mind's  eye. ' '  Notice  the  following  appeal  taken 
from  Thurston's  speech  urging  intervention  in  Cuba: 

The  pictures  in  the  American  newspapers  of  the  starving 
reconcentrados  are  true.  They  can  be  all  duplicated  by  the 
thousands.  I  never  before  saw,  and  please  God.  I  may  never 
again  see,  so  dep'oi'al)le  a  sight  as  the  reconcentrados  in  the 
suburbs  of  Matanzas.  I  can  never  forget  to  my  dying  day  the 
hopeU'ss  anguish  in  their  despairing  eyes.  Huddled  about  their 
little  bark  huts,  they  raised  no  voice  of  appeal  to  us  for  alms 
as  we  went  among  tluMii.    *     *     * 

Men,  women,  ami  cliildrcu  slaud  .silent,  r.-unishiiig  with 
hunger.  Their  only  appeal  comes  IVoiii  llieir  sad  eyes,  Ihrough 
which  one  looks  as  thi'ough  ;in  ()|)i'n  window  iiil(^  llieii-  agonizing 
souls. 

The  Government  of  Spain  has  not  appropi'inted  and  will 
not  appropriate  one  dollar  to  save  these  people.  They  are  now 
being  attended  and  nursed  and  administei-ed  to  by  the  charity 
of  the  United  States.     Think  of  the  spectacle !     We  are  feeding 


THE  APPEAL  TO  ACTION  293 

those  citizens  of  Spain ;  Ave  are  nursing  tiieir  sick ;  we  are  saving 
such  as  can  be  saved,  and  yet  there  are  those  who  still  say  it  is 
right  for  us  to  send  food,  but  we  must  keep  our  hands  off.  I 
sav  that  the  tini(>  luis  come  when  muskets  ought  to  go  with  the 

n.nd! 

AMieii  Thurston  himself  saw^  the  starving  reconcen- 
trados,  he  felt  like  taking  up  arms  against  Spain.  In 
liis  speech,  in  the  Senate,  lie  tries  to  arouse  the  images 
lie  actually  saw,  in  order  that  the  senators  might  vote 
to  declare  war. 

(h)   Unconscious  Action 

Nature  is  wdser  than  any  of  her  offsprings.  She  has 
developed  in  each  creature  the  means  of  reacting  in 
certain  fundamental  ways  necessary  for  its  continued 
existence,  even  without  its  being  aware  of  the  stimulus 
or  need  for  action,  and,  in  some  cases,  without  its 
realizing  that  it  has  moved,  when  the  response  has 
actually  taken  place.  Let  us  give  a  few  concrete 
examples. 

Of  all  the  extreme  cases  of  unconscious  action,  hello- 
tropism  of  flowers  was  the  first  observed  by  man.  It 
was  seen  that  sunflowers  and  others  would  turn  toward 
the  light  (Greek — lielios,  sun,  and  trope,  a  turning). 
Later  it  was  discovered  that  some  animals  were  also 
heliotropic.  Upon  the  appearance  of  light,  they  would 
move  in  its  direction  like  automata,  performing  com- 
plicated movements  of  locomotion  with  no  choice  or 
consciousness  of  their  own.  Other  tropisms  have  been 
found.  For  instance,  sAvarms  of  flies  must,  of  necessity, 
head  against  the  w^ind ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  locusts 
move  with  the  wind,  heading  away  from  the  direction 
from  which  it  comes.  The  lady-beetle  and  the  star  fish, 
when  placed  on  a  verticle  surface,  automatically  begin 
to  climb  in  an  upward  direction;  they  cannot  go  dowai 
nor   rest   quietly.      Certain   crayfish   and    shrimps   will 


294  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

liead  toward. tlie  positive  pole  of  an  electric  current  in 
the  water,  just  as  lieliotropic  animals  move  toward  the 
light. 

How  far  human  beings  are  affected  in  this  manner 
by  external  forces  is  not  definitely  known.  It  is  prob- 
able that  we  have  various  tropisms.  Certainly  a  brief 
description  of  them  prepares  one  to  understand  other 
unconscious  and  dimly  appreciated  acts  very  common 
to  us  all.  Just  as  external,  physical  circumstances 
determine  tropisms,  so  also  instincts  which  are  inherited, 
fix  almost  as  completely  the  course  of  our  conduct  in 
certain  situations.  It  is  instinctive  to  flee  from  danger. 
Confront  a  man— certainly  a  child  who  has  not  learned 
higher  forms  of  control— with  a  dangerous  thing  and 
the  instinctive  impulse  is  to  flee.  It  is  instinctive  to 
repulse  that  which  is  distasteful  and  to  try  to  acquire 
that  which  seems  good.  These  and  other  tendencies  are 
born  in  us ;  they  are  handed  down  through  the  race.  A 
person  needs  only  to  be  confronted  with  a  situation 
and  the  instinctive  response  takes  place  without  reflec- 
tion and  sometimes  without  a  realization  of  the  action 
itself. 

The  reflex  is  the  next  higher  in  the  scale  approaching 
conscious  action.  It  is  not  an  inherited  tendency  but 
is  built  up  during  the  life  of  an  individual,  through 
•practice.  The  eye  winks  when  a  foreign  body  ap- 
proaches it,  and  the  hand  of  a  man  reading  a  book 
will  flick  a  fly  from  the  face  without  once  interrupting 
the  complete  absorption  of  the  mind  in  the  interesting 
contents  of  the  printed  page.  Again,  the  body  as  a 
mechanism  appropriately  meets  a  situation  without  both- 
ering consciousness.  At  first,  reflex  acts— like  those 
mentioned,  the  movements  in  walking,  playing  a  musi- 
cal instrument,  and  many  others — were  the  results  of 
deliberate  thought,  but  continued  practice  made  them 
mechanical. 


THE  APPEAL  TO  ACTION  _  295 

Similar  to  this,  is  the  idiomotor  act,  in  wliicli  a  notion 
promptly  sets  off  an  active  response.  A  child  on  April 
first  will  say,  ''Oh,  see  the  bug  on  your  arm,"  and  then 
shout,  "April  fool!"  as  you  make  a  frantic  sweep  of 
the  hand  to  brush  off  an  insect  which  never  existed. 
Here  the  flash  of  thought  "bug  on  arm"  sets  the  mech- 
anism into  characteristic  response,  without  reflection. 
Only  after  the  act  is  completed  is  one  aware  that  he 
has  acted. 

Every  man  is  a  bundle  of  action  tendencies,  the 
nature  of  which  is  determined  by  surrounding,  physical 
conditions  to  which  he  must  turn  (tropism)  in  a  certain 
way;  by  what  his  ancestors  did  and  implanted  in  him 
at  birth  (instinctive  tendencies) ;  by  what  he  himself 
repeatedly  did  during  his  life  till  the  things  became 
mechanical  (reflexes  and  settled  habits) ;  and  by  what 
he  approved  again  and  again  through  repeated  action. 
If  a  speaker  attempts  to  move  his  hearer  in  a  manner  in 
harmony  with  this  bundle  of  tendencies,  he  can,  as  a 
rule,  succeed  quite  easily,  but  if  he  proposes  something 
counter  to  them,  his  task  will  indeed  be  difficult.  About 
this  we  shall  speak  at  greater  length  later.  Just  now  we 
can  classify  acts  into  three  groups  of  service  to  us — a 
classification  which  can  be  understood  because  of  the 
introduction  just  completed. 

1.  The  act  stimulated  by  the  speaker  may  be  uncon- 
scious and  determined  by  inherited  and  acquired 
tendencies  on  which  he  played. 

2.  The  act  may  be  a  conscious  but  impulsive  response 
to  an  attractive  end  proposed  by  the  speaker. 

3.  The  act  may  be  a  deliberate  and  selective  response 
in  which  the  action  is  made  in  a  certain  direction  w^itli 
the  mind  fully  aware  of  other  possible  courses  to  be 
pureued. 

Before  discussing  these,  we  may  say  that  all  the 
considerations  under  the  first  must  be  present  and  be 


29G  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

reckoned  with  by  the   speaker  when  dealing  with  the 
second,  and  all  the  principles  bearing  on  the  second  are  ' 
applicable  also  in  stimulating  a  selective  action. 

2.     Speaker's   Influence   over   Mechanical   Responses 

A  speaker  who  can  play  on  primitive  and  deeply 
imbedded  tendencies  can  get  a  favorable  inclination  to 
almost  anything  he  may  propose  and  even  definite 
responses  in  the  form  of  concrete  acts.  What  are  his 
tools  or  methods  f 

1.  His  personal  influence  is  the  first  force  brought 
into  play.  The  magnetic  speaker,  both  because  of  his 
general  attractiveness  and  the  particular  earnestness 
he  shows  in  a  given  cause,  carries  his  hearers  with  him. 
He  has  them  as  in  a  spell  and  they  move  with  him  in 
thought,  feeling,  and  deed.  They  do  not  reason  out 
that  they  like  liim,  or  that,  because  he  is  worthy  of 
confidence,  they  will  therefore  do  as  he  proposes;  they 
simply  turn  toward  him  and  follow  his  suggestions 
without  thought.  So  long  as  he  is  there  to  influence 
them  by  his  presence  and  his  voice,  they  are  his  to 
command.  Such  influence  is  of  greatest  service  when 
immediate  action  is  wanted.  It  tends  to  diminish  in 
power  when  an  interval  of  time  comes  between  the 
speech  and  the  occasion  for  action.  It  is  a  help  to  the 
preacher  pleading  for  a  big  contribution  to  be  made  on 
the  spot,  to  the  salesman  trying  to  close  a  contract,  to 
the  military  captain  just  before  the  charge,  to  the  foot- 
l)all  coach  in  the  dressing  room  between  the  halves.  To 
just  the  extent  a  speaker  can  impress  his  personality  on 
others,  this  inHuence  will  hold  over  and  have  effect  after 
a  laxjse  of  time,  but  in  all  cas(\s  its  maximum  effect  is 
felt  during  delivery. 

How  is  such  an  influence  to  be  developed !  The  prin- 
ciples   involved    and    the    practical    method    steps    are 


THE  APPEAL  TO  AC^TION  297 

outlinod  in  Lesson  8,  undor  tlio  headings,  "Personality," 
''Confidence,"  ''Self-Control,"  and  "Tact." 

2.  Repcdicd  mass  aciio)i  is  a  meclianical  device  for 
moving  an  andience.  Tlirongh  it,  a  gronp  of  individuals 
may  be  weld(Ml  into  a  mass  responsive  to  the  will  of  a 
leader.  Eevivalists  use  it  often.  First  the  choirmaster 
has  everybody  sing.  Then  all  others  remain  quiet  while 
those  in  the  front  half  and  to  the  right  carry  a  stanza; 
the  second  stanza  is  taken  up  by  those  in  front  and  to  the 
left  while  all  together  sing  the  chorus.  Then  follows 
singing  by  various  groups  all  over  the  house,  alone  and 
in  various  combinations.  The  choirmaster  has  all  doing 
his  will  and  following  his  lead.  They  are  in  a  respon- 
sive state.  Then  on  comes  the  revivalist  himself.  He 
continues  the  response  by  getting  silent  agreements  with 
obvious  truths.  Then  he  obtains  a  show  of  hands  on 
this  or  that  question.  He  gets  those  who  were  converted 
before  the  age  of  ten  to  stand,  then  those  who  came  at 
twenty,  and  so  on.  By  means  of  rhetorical  questions 
which  permit  of  only  one  answer  (silent  to  be  sure) 
and  direct  questions  calling  for  movements,  he  gets 
the  whole  audience  responsive  to  him.  The  whole  situa- 
tion is  favorable  to  action  which  he  will  suggest,  though 
most  of  those  present  do  not  realize  the  process  by 
which  they  were  brought  into  line.  Only  the  coolest 
and  strongest  willed  individuals  can  hold  out. 

The  more  intellectual  the  audience,  the  smaller  the 
chance  for  success  by  these  tactics.  They  are  of  service 
only  when  the  response  can  be  made  then  and  there. 
A  religious  revival  does  little,  as  a  rule,  to  establish 
new  courses  of  conduct;  its  great  value  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  stimulates  an  initial  step.  The  steady  work  of 
a  pastor  is  necessary  to  conserve  the  results  obtained 
by  the  evangelist. 

The  auction  sale  is  another  example  of  the  impel  ling- 
force  of  repeated  mass  action.    A  man  goes  to  an  auction 


298  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

with  no  intention  of  buying.  He  sees  article  after  article 
bought;  he  timidly  enters  the  bidding;  he  gets  into  the 
habit  of  responding  and  finally  "gets  the  fever"  so  that 
he  eagerly  bids  on  everything  that  is  put  up. 

In  deliberative  bodies,  where  voting  goes  on  as  a  matter 
of  routine,  responses  tend  to  become  mechanical.  This 
is  especially  true  toward  the  end  of  a  session.  One 
who  is  wily,  who  senses  the  tendency  to  pass  everything 
and  who  wishes  a  resolution  to  prevail,  will  make  his 
motion  unobtrusively,  have  it  quietly  seconded  and  go 
through  on  a  "sleepy  vote."  If,  however,  he  speaks  in 
support  of  his  proposition,  he  will  break  the  spell.  Then 
to  secure  its  passage  he  must  work  for  intellectual  assent 
rather  than  the  mechanical,  approving  response. 

Nomination  speeches  and  addresses  in  favor  of  patri- 
otic resolutions  are  often  carefully  planned  to  "sweep 
the  hearers  off  their  feet."  A  series  of  approvals  is 
arranged.  The  speaker  draws  applause  for  this  and 
applause  for  that.  Gradually  he  leads  up  to  applause 
of  the  final  and  desired  proposal.  It  is  during  this  final 
burst  of  enthusiasm,  made  possible  by  the  skillful  order- 
ing of  those  which,  preceded  it,  that  the  vote  is  taken. 
Here,  as  in  the  other  cases,  it  is  clear  that  the  action 
taken  is  a  blind  one  and  not  the  result  of  meditation  nor 
even  a  single  clear  notion.  Tlie  method  can  be  success- 
ful only  when  the  outlet  in  action  is  immediately  present. 

3.     The  Impulsive  Act 

The  impulsive  act  is  the  result  of  the  successful 
impress  of  a  desirable  end  on  the  mind  of  the  hearer. 
The  speaker  wants  something  done.  He  presents  it  so 
as  to  attract  attention  and  arouse  interest.  The  atten- 
tion nmst  be  kept  on  the  act  until  it  is  actually  accom- 
})lished,  if  it  fades  from  the  mind  and  something  else 
crowds  in  to  hold  the  center  of  the  mental  stage,  the 
act  will  not  take  place.     Therefore,  the  first  care  of  the 


TITF.  APPEAL  TO  ACTION  299 

speaker  is  to  present  the  act  and  wliat  it  will  hi'ini;-,  in 
a  clear  and  forceful  niannei'.  For  a  discussion  of 
interest  and  attention,  review  Lesson  4. 

Bnt  not  only  must  the  act  to  be  performed  be  held  in 
the  center  of  attention;  it  must  be  of  a  character  to 
stimulate  an  emotional  set  favorable  to  the  course  to  be 
l)ursued.  One  might  propose  a  climb  up  a  mountain 
on  a  hot  day,  but  the  bare  thought  is  so  distasteful  that 
it  is  banished  from  the  mind  promptly  and  no  action 
takes  place.XBut  if  some'  attractive  feature,  such  as  a 
cooling  breeze  on  the  top,  the  far  view^,  and  some  rare 
fruit  or  berries  to  be  had  there  and  only  there,  is  held 
out,  the  feelings  aroused  in  response  are  positive  so 
far  as  action  is  concerned,  and  not  negative.  "Anything 
in  harmony  with  instinctive  and  acquired  tendencies 
(some  of  which  are  common  to  all  men)  or  in  accord 
with  special  tastes  wall  stimulate  these  positive  or  fav- 
():able  emotional  responses  wdiich  drive  on  to  action. 
Attention  cares  for  the  nature  and  direction  of  the 
action ;  feeling  gives  the  impulse. 

Notice  the  way  in  wdiich  Daniel  Webster  makes  John 
Adams  plead  for  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence : 

"The  war,  then,  must  go  on.  We  must  figlit  it  through. 
And  if  the  war  must  go  on,  why  put  off  longer  the  declaration 
of  independence?  That  measure  will  strengthen  us.  It  will 
give  us  character  abroad.  The  nations  will  then  treat  with  us, 
which  they  never  can  do  while  we  acknowledge  ourselves  sub- 
jects in  arms  against  our  sovereign.  Nay,  I  maintain  that  Eng- 
land herself  will  sooner  treat  for  peace  with  us  on  the  footing 
of  independence,  than  consent,  by  repealing  her  acts,  to  acknowl- 
(Hlge  that  her  whole  conduct  toward  us  ha.s  been  a  course  of 
injustice  and  oppression.     *     *     * 

"The  cause  will  raise  up  armies;  the  cause  will  create  navies. 
The  people,  the  people,  if  we  are  true  to  them,  will  carry  us. 
and  will  carry  themselves  gloriously  through  this  struggle.  I 
care  not  how  fickle  other  people  have  been  found.  I  know  the 
people  of  these  colonies,  and  I  know  that  resistance  to  Priti.sh 
aggression  is  deep  and  settled   in   their  hearts,   and   cannot  be 


300  EFFECTIVE  PI.tbLIC  SPEAKING 

eradicated.  Every  colony,  indeed,  has  expressed  its  willingness 
to  follow,  if  we  but  take  the  lead.  Sir,  the  declaration  will 
inspire  the  people  with  increased  courage.  Instead  of  a  lon^ 
and  bloody  Avar  for  the  restoration  of  privileges,  for  redress  of 
grievances,  for  chartered  ininumities,  held  under  a  British  kin^-. 
set  before  them  the  glorious  object  of  entire  independence,  and 
it  will  breathe  unto  them  anew  the  breath  of  life. 

"Read  this  declaration  at  the  head  of  the  army;  every  sword 
will  be  drawn  from  its  scabbard,  and  the  solemn  vow  uttered,  to 
maintain  it,  or  to  perish  on  the  bed  of  honor.  Publish  it  from 
the  pulpit;  religion  will  approve  it,  and  the  love  of  religious 
liberty  will  cling  around  it,  resolved  to  stand  with  it,  or  to  fall 
with  it.  Send  it  to  the  public  halls ;  proclaim  it  there ;  let  them 
hear  it  who  heard  the  first  roar  of  the  enemy's  cannon;  Id 
them  see  it  who  saw  their  brothers  and  their  sons  fall  on  the 
field  of  Bunker  Hill,  and  in  the  streets  of  Lexington  and  Concord, 
and  the  very  walls  will  cry  out  in  its  support." 

AVe  may  tabulate  our  conclusions.  To  arouse  impul- 
sive action,  the  speaker  must  present  the  stimulus  so 
as — 

1.  To  awaken  interest; 

2.  To  bold  attention; 

3.  To  draw  forth  emotions  favorable  to  the  action 
proposed. 

What  Constitute  Facorahle  Feelings? — The  passage 
just  given  stimulates  feelings  of  hope,  courage,  and 
elation.  As  the  speaker  proceeds,  be  builds  up  confi- 
dence. Those  listening  catcb  tbe  spirit;  their  hearts 
beat  strongly  and  their  breathing  is  deep  and  exhilarat- 
ing. Physically  and  emotionally  they  are  machines  of 
assurance.  The  act  proposed  is  represented  as  (a)  in 
harmony  with  inherited  instincts  of  self-preservation, 
desire  for  power,  desire  for  redress;  (b)  in  line  with 
special  existing  political  and  economic  aims;  and  (c) 
likely  to  be  successful.     The  last  is  dwelt  on  most  fully. 

For  a  similar  appeal  to  action,  read  once  more  Henry 
Clay's  conclusion  of  tbe  speecb  in  favor  of  the  AVar  of 
1812,  in  Lesson  6,  page  99.  Notice  that  in  the  Clay 
peroration,  not  only  is  confidence  stimulated  but  hatred 


THE  APPEAL  TO  ACTION  301 

of  England  is  worked  up  by  insinuation  and  direct 
statement. 

If  primitive  passions  can  be  aroused  strongly  enough, 
assurances  of  success  are  unnecessary,  for  a  blind  for- 
ward plunge  will  come  with  strong  feeling,  and  there 
is  no  thought  of  consequences. 

"We  not  only  act  when  our  whole  being,  physical  and 
mental,  inherited  and  acquired,  flows  positively  toward 
the  end  proposed,  but  we  also  respond  negatively  when 
we  see  that  failure  to  act  will  bring  punishment  or 
retaliation.  Note  the  following  skillful  appeal  of  Henry 
Clay  to  Congressmen  to  send  an  expression  of  sympathy 
to  Greece  in  her  struggle  for  independence: 

"But,  sir,  it  is  not  for  Greece  alone  that  I  desire  to  see  this 
measure  adopted.  It  will  give  to  her  but  little  support,  and 
that  purely  of  a  moral  kind.  It  is  prmcipally  for  America,  for 
the  credit  and  character  of  our  common  country,  for  our  own 
unsullied  name,  that  I  hope  to  see  it  pass.  What,  ]\Ir.  Chairman, 
appearance  on  the  page  of  history  would  a  record  like  this 
exhibit?  'In  the  month  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
and  Savior  1824,  while  all  European  Christendom  beheld,  with 
cold  and  unfeeling  indifference,  the  unexampled  wrongs  and  in- 
expressible misery  of  Christian  Greece,  a  proposition  was  made 
in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  almost  the  sole,  the  last, 
the  greatest  depository  of  human  hope  and  human  freedom,  the 
representatives  of  a  gallant  nation,  containing  a  million  of  free- 
men ready  to  fly  to  arms,  while  the  people  of  that  nation  were 
spontaneously  expressing  its  deep-toned  feeling,  and  the  whole 
continent,  by  one  simultaneous  emotion,  was  rising,  and  solemnly 
and  anxiously  supplicating  and  invoking  high  Heaven  to  spare 
and  succor  Greece,  and  to  invigorate  her  arms,  in  her  glorious 
cause,  while  temples  and  senate  houses  were  alike  resounding 
with  one  burst  of  generous  and  holy  sympathy — in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  and  Savior,  that  Savior  of  Greece  and  of  us,  a  propo- 
sition was  offered  in  the  American  Congress  to  send  a  messenger 
to  Greece,  to  inquire  into  her  state  and  condition,  wdth  a  kind 
expression  of  our  good  wishes  and  our  sympathies — and  it  was 
rejected ! ' 

"Go  home  if  you  can,  go  home  if  you  dare,  to  your  constitu- 
ents and  tell  them  that  you  voted  it  down ;  meet,  if  you  can,  the 
appalling  countenances  of  those  who  sent  you  here  and  tell  them 


302  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

that  yoii  shrank  from  the  declaration  of  your  own  sentiments; 
that  you  cannot  tell  how,  but  that  some  unknown  dread,  some 
indescribable  apprehension,  .some  indefinable  danger,  drove  you 
from  your  purpose ;  that  the  spectres  of  cimeters  and  crowns 
and  crescents  gleamed  before  you  and  alarmed  you ;  and  that 
you  suppressed  all  the  noble  feelings  prompted  by  religion,  by 
liberty,  by  national  independence,  and  l)y  humanity^  I  cannot 
bring  m.yself  to  believe  that  such  will  be  the  feeling  of  the 
majority  of  the  committee.  But,  for  myself,  though  every  friend 
of  the  cause  should  desert  it,  and  I  be  left  to  stand  alone  with  the 
gentleman  from  Massachusetts,  I  will  give  to  his  resolution  the 
poor  sanction  of  my  unqualified  approbation." 

Here  we  find  a  clever  combination  of  positive  and  neg- 
ative stimuli.  Clay  arouses  the  positive  emotions  of 
sympathy,  religious  fervor,  and  national  pride  while  he 
negatively  seeks  the  proper  vote  by  arousing  anticipated 
fear  of  the  constituents'  displeasure  and  shame  at  the 
charges  of  cowardice  and  sordid  self-interest. 

Nature  of  the  Stimulus. — The  stimulus  used  by  the 
speaker  may  be  either  the  image  (see  Lesson  9),  the 
concept  (see  Lesson  11),  or  the  argument  (see  Lessons 
13, 14,  and  15).  As  an  image  of  a  certain  desirable  thing 
flashes  up  in  the  mind  and  holds  the  attention,  it  may 
bring  a  favorable  emotional  state  and  produce  action. 
So  also  as  a  notion  of  right,  justice,  etc.,  grows, 
it  may  result  in  deeds.  Certainly  arguments  to  estab- 
lish opinions  are  very  often  the  antecedents  of  actions. 
The  speaker  carefully  selects  these  units  of  thought  and 
welds  them  together  so  as  to  touch  off  the  desired  action 
most  effectively. 

Now  it  must  be  said  that,  as  a  rule,  impulsive  acts 
result  from  the  realization  of  concrete  images  rather 
than  abstract  ideas  or  propositions.  Certainly  it  is  true 
that  an  impulsive  response  is  most  likely  to  take  place 
if  the  stimulus  touches  off  fundamental,  deep-lying  ten- 
dencies. As  the  tendencies  become  less  primitive,  or 
biological,  and  more  intellectual,  they  are  less  likely  to  be 
stirred  into  im])ulsive  response. 


THE  APPEAL  TO  ACTION  303 

4.     Selective  Action 

The  selective  action  implies  conscious  choice  and 
decision.  There  is  a  clear  willingness  to  act.  In  the 
mechanical  response,  deepdying  forces  of  nature,  largely 
Ijhj'sical,  cast  the  deciding  vote,  and  the  body  acts  with 
no  conscious  direction  from  the  mind.  In  the  impulsive 
i-esponse,  these  forces  are  also  very  powerful,  but  the 
thinking  and  feeling  mind  is  also  awake  and  aware  of 
the  attraction  or  repulsion  and  the  consequent  action 
in  this  direction  or  that.  In  the  selective  action,  how- 
ever, the  mind  is  the  final  determining  iactor ;  it  is  not 
assailed  by  a  force  driving  it  on  to  one  course  of  action 
before  any  resistance  can  be  begun;  it  is  fully  aware 
of  two  or  more  possible  lines  of  conduct.  "While,  old 
tendencies  and  impulses  may  be  stronger  than  judg- 
ment and  have  their  way,  in  selective  action  there  is 
a  decision,  a  conscious  inclination  in  one  direction 
rather  than  in  another.  Recently  the  Italian  Cabinet 
had  to  make  a  choice — to  remain  neutral  or  take  part 
in  the  great  European  conflict.  A  man  suddenly  met 
and  insulted  on  the  street,  usually  has  no  choice.  His 
whole  nature  either  drives  him  on  against  his  tormentor 
or  away  in  craven  retreat.  If  the  same  man,  like  Italy, 
had  time  to  consider  and  weigh  the  matter,  there  would 
])e  a  chance  for  comparison  and  choice. 

But  what  shall  be  compared  or  contrasted?  That 
depends  on  the  level  of  the  hearer's  intelligence  and  what 
the  circumstances  require  to  be  placed  before  him  for 
consideration.  Possibly  two  images  arise  with  their 
attendant  emotions'.  There  is  a  struggle,  and  the  man 
acts  out  the  suggestion  of  one  rather  than  the  other. 
Dld-fashioned  ministers  used  to  present  vivid  images 
of  blistering  hell  and  visions  of  blissful  glory.  They 
moved  their  audiences  by  associating  faith  and  conduct 
witli  heaven  and  lack  of  these  things  with  hell.     There 


304  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

was  no  argument  to  prove  that  sucli  places  really  did 
exist  or  that  they  were  logically  connected  with  the 
acceptance  of  a  particular  creed  or  the  carrying-out  of 
certain  ideals  of  life.  The  assault  was  on  the  imagina- 
tion by  means  of  vivid  images. 

Action  may  also  be  influenced  by  a  similar  exalting  of 
a  particular  concept,  or  general  ideal,  over  alternative 
ones.  An  argument  can  also  be  advanced  as  the  basis 
of  a  definite  action.  In  these  last  two  cases,  the  feelings 
which  spring  up  with  the  thoughts  in  the  mind  are  not 
vivid  emotions,  but  rather  calm,  settled  sentiments.  If 
we  expound  a  belief  to  a  man  so  that  it  is  acceptable, 
or  arg-ue  a  proposition  so  that  it  is  proved,  as  the  basis 
for  action,  we  have  laid  a  strong  and  permanent  founda- 
tion; but  no  stimulus  of  an  exciting  nature  is  likely  to 
be  there.  Such  concepts  and  beliefs,  when  fully  accepted, 
are  hard  to  shake  and  will  almost  invariably  work  out 
in  action  when  an  occasion  arises,  but  not  necessarily 
in  speedy  action. 

The  mechanical  response  and  impulsive  action  must 
be  immediate.  The  stroke  nuist  be  made  when  the  iron 
is  hot.  On  the  other  hand,  the  selective  action,  based 
on  thought  and  reason,  may  take  place  long  after  the 
initial  impression  was  made,  for  such  impressions  grow 
deeper  and  more  potent  with  reflection;  the  stimulus 
to  action  is  slow,  steady,  persistent.  Emotions  are  fleet- 
ing; sentiments  are  abiding. 

Finally,  it  is  possible  to  be  convinced  that  this  or  that 
thing  is  true  or  this  or  that  act  wise,  yet  not  feel  the  call 
for  personal  response — for  exertion  by  you  yourself. 
One  might  tell  of  atrocities  in  tlie  Congo  and  prove  them 
and  yet  get  no  active  response  from  an  American 
audience.  The  thing  might  be  looked  upon  as  an  aca- 
demic and  impersonal  matter.  Therefore,  a  speaker 
trying  to  stimulate  a  selective  act,  based  on  reason, 
must  go  a  stej)  beyond  j^troving  the  desirability  of  action ; 


THE  APPEAL  TO  ACTION  305 

he  must  connect  it  with  his  hearers'  personal  welfare 
and  happiness.  He  must  make  them  believe  that  they  arc 
affected  and  will  benefit  by  the  act  proposed.  Their  wel- 
fare ranges  all  the  way  from  physical  well-being  to  mental 
peace  due  to  the  thought  of  a  lofty  and  unselfish  deed 
well  done.  The  higher  the  type  of  man  appealed  to, 
the  wider  is  the  field  of  personal  interest,  the  less  ego- 
tistic the  point  of  view  and  the  more  altruistic.  Indeed, 
the  nobler  men  will  act  readily  upon  lofty,  abstract 
ideals  of  conduct  even  wdien  such  action  is  counter  to 
their  material  welfare.  Here  is  where  the  speaker  must 
judge  his  auditors  for  himself  and  no  one  can  help 
him.  What  shall  be  his  level  of  appeal!  Of  help  in 
this  connection  is  the  discussion  of  "Tact,"  beginning 
on  page  145  of  Lesson  8. 

(<7)   The  Persisting  Stimulus 

When  an  action  cannot  be  performed  immediately  and 
the  speaker  wants  his  ideas  and  feelings  to  arise  again 
and  again  in  his  hearers'  minds,  he  must  implant  some 
permanent  reminder.  He  must  put  a  barb  in  his  arrow 
so  that  it  will  stick  and  prick  from  time  to  time.  The 
best  barb  is  an  apt  epithet  that  cannot  be  forgotten. 
Henry  Clay,  speaking  for  high  tariff,  called  it  the 
"American  System"  in  opposition  to  the  "British  Col- 
onial System."  That  was  a  fine  tag.  The  words  stuck 
and  everyone  was  enthusiastic  over  the  "American 
System;"  indeed,  who  could  fail  to  approve  and  Avho 
could  forget  a  system  so  named  and  held  in  mind  I 
Another  good  barb  was  Webster's  "Liberty  and  Union." 
We  all  remember  John  Hay's  denunciation  of  "Dollar 
Diplomacy"  and  now  Bryan  is  hit  with  the  epithet  club 
of  "Shirtsleeve  Diplomacy."  For  a  long  time  Roose- 
velt was  successful  when  his  projects  came  under  the 
magic  head  of  "A  Square  Deal,"  and  he  suffered  severely 


306  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

when  some  one  pinned  to  him  the  persistent  expression, 
"Big  Stick."  The  writer  remembers  how  a  college 
speaker  who  was  urging  the  students  to  have  all  their 
dances  formal — with  dress-suit  necessary — killed  the 
movement  for  informal  dances  by  calling  them  ''Shirt- 
Waist  Dances."  All  these  expressions  are  catchy  and 
suggestive  as  well.  Once  caught,  they  cannot  be  for- 
gotten and,  being  in  mind,  they  influence  conduct. 

The  persistent  epithet  is  valuable  also  in  creating 
public  opinion — in  spreading  a  certain  attitude  and 
tendency  to  action.  The  women  teachers  of  New  York 
City  repeated  in  many  speeches  the  phrase,  "Equal  pay 
for  equal  work!"  Now  who  could  resist  that  slogan? 
They  got  a  scale  of  wages  with  men  teachers  and 
women  teachers  on  an  equal  basis.  Charles  Sumner 
kept  abolition  sentiment  alive  in  the  North  with  his 
"Crime  Against  Kansas"  and  "Slavery  Sectional,  Free- 
dom National."  James  G.  Blaine  owed  his  defeat  for 
the  presidency  to  a  certain  extent,  to  the  unfortunate 
expression,  "Eum,  Eomanism,  and  Rebellion,"  as  a 
characterization  of  what  the  democratic  party  stood  for. 
In  that  case  the  expression  acted  as  a  boomerang. 

5.     Direction    Summary 

If  you  wish  a  certain  action,  make  up  your  mind  what 
the  general  tendencies  of  your  audience  are,  the  partic- 
ular ideals  and  special  motives  which  hold  in  the 
present  case,  then  determine : 

1.  Is  the  proposed  action  in  harmony  with  the 
fundamental  tendencies  of  most  people?  Then  make 
the  most  of  tliat  asjx'ct  to  stimnlalc  a  mechanical  or 
impulsive  I'esponse. 

2.  Has  this  particular  audience  any  settled  habits  of 
action  in  reference  to  you  or  the  course  proposed?  Do 
they  look  upon  you  as  a  leader  or  one  who  should  be 


THE  APPEAL  TO  ACTION  307 

obeyed?  If  so,  order  them,  and  depend  upon  tlie  linl)it 
of  response.  Is  the  thing  proposed  a  natural  or  routine 
tiling  for  them  to  do?  Tlien  propose  it  as  a  matter  of 
course  and  look  for  habitual  disposition. 

3.  Can  you  connect  the  proposed  end  with  some 
settled  ideals,  notions,  or  j^rejudices  which  they  have? 
If  so,  make  the  most  of  the  proper  aspects  and  get  the 
weight  of  existing  tendencies  behind  your  action. 

4.  Can  you  make  the  end  appear  new  and  intrinsic- 
ally attractive?  Then  do  so,  dwelling  on  the  emotion 
evoking  aspects,  striving  for  impulsive  response. 

5.  Is  it  necessary  to  prove  rather  than  assert  the 
desirability  of  the  end  proposed!  Do  so,  but  only  when 
necessary,  for  meditation  is  the  foe  of  immediate  action. 
If  you  must  prove,  do  it  well.  (See  Lessons  13,  14, 
and  15.) 

6.  If  an  interval  must  come  between  the  stimulus  of 
your  speech  and  the  act  proposed,  try  to  devise  a 
persistent  and  stimulating  brief  summary  of  your 
suggestive  and  impelling  idea. 


Assignment  op  Work 


Tlic  written  cxcicisos  in  this  piitiro  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  j'our  notebook. 


First  Daij. — Read  the  lesson  at  least  twice  and  then  make  a 
topical  outline  of  it.     jNIaster  its  contents  thoroughly. 

Second  Day. — Read  again  what  was  said  about  tropisms  and 
also  about  the  effect  of  a  speaker's  personality  on  an  aud- 
ience. Then  list  all  the  possible  external  influences  which 
you  can  think  of  wliicli  affect  the  listener's  response  whether 
lie  knows  it  or  not. 

Third  Dinj. — Read  again  what  was  .said  about  inherited  tenden- 
cies. Beginning  with  (1)  the  tendency  to  seek  nourish- 
ment and  (2)  the  tendency  to  sexual  acts  of  reproduction, 
make  a  list  of  all  the  tendencies  which,  to  you.  vseem  inher- 


308  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ited  by  all  men  and  which  the.y  are  strongly  moved  to  act 
out  under  appropriate  stimulation. 

Fourth  Day. — List  settled  ideals  and  prejudices  common  to  most 
Americans.  Combine  the  lists  of  the  second,  third,  and 
fourth  days. 

Fifth  Day. — Outline  a  speech  designed  to  secure  a  definite 
action.  Precede  the  outline  with  an  analysis  of  the  particu- 
lar audience  you  imagine.  List  the  springs  to  action  the 
audience  hag.  Tell  the  make-up  of  the  audience  and  then 
enumerate : 

1.  Possible  external  influences; 

2.  Inherited  tendencies ; 

3.  Settled  habits  of  routine  action ; 

4.  Settled  prejudices  and  ideals  Avhicli  can  be  connected 
with  your  particular  purpose. 

Addiiiuual  Tasl\ — Whenever  you  read  speeches  proposing  ac- 
tions, analyze  the  appeals  in  the  manner  given  above.  Do 
this  very  often  and  write  out  such  an  analysis  of  a  speech, 
from  time  to  time,  in  vour  notebook. 


I 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

TIr'sso  qiU'sstioiia  are  for  tho  stmlent  to  use  in  tcstinj? 
liis  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  fiiifirirstirr  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  ])ra('tical 
api)licati()n  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
iKitoliook    for   future   reference. 

1.  What  is  the  rank  of  a  speech  urging  to  action,  in  the 
oratorical  scale  of  values?  What  is  the  popular  notion  of  the 
high-water  mark  of  oratory? 

2.  Is  there  such  a  thing  as  unconscious  action?  Among  ani- 
mals ?    Among  men  ? 

;3.     What  is  meant  hy  tropism?     Are  human  beings  tropic? 

4.  What  is  an  inherited  tendency?  What  is  a  reflex?  What 
is  a  habitual  action  ? 

5.  How  does  conscious  action  differ  from  unconscious  re- 
sponse ? 

6.  What  are  the  possible  stimuli  to  action?  What  agency 
does  a  speaker  employ?  Are  words  as  influential  as  real  situa- 
tions ? 

7.  What  influence  has  a  speaker  over  unconscious  responses? 

8.  What  are  the  essential  features  of  an  impulsive  action? 
How  are  the  emotions  affected? 

0.     Has  attention  anything  to  do  with  action?     If  so,  what? 

10.  Has  interest  anything  to  do  with  action? 

11.  Of  images,  concepts,  and  proved  beliefs,  which  is  the; 
strongest  stimulus  to  immediate  action?  Which  tends  to  guar- 
antee the  surest  action  ? 

12.  What  are  the  essential  features  of  selective  action? 

13.  Do  ideals  and  judgment  affect  selective  action  as  nnich 
or  more  than  inherited  instincts  ?  -  Is  there  a  rule  to  be  applied 
to  all  people  in  this  respect? 

309 


310  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

14.  What  is  meant  bj'  the  persisting  stimulus '!  Can  you  name 
others  besides  that  given? 

15.  Would  an  advertising  man  or  a  salesman  profit  by  read- 
ing this  lesson  ?  Would  a  teacher  or  parent  ?  Would  a  fore- 
man or  boss  of  other  men  ? 

16.  What  relation  does  this  lesson  bear  to  the  previous  les- 
sons ?  to  lesson  3  for  example  ?  or  lesson  8  ?  or  9  ?  or  12  ?  Could 
you  prepare  an  outline  of  the  course  showing  the  relation  of 
each  topic  and  lesson  to  the  whole  and  to  each  other  ? 

17.  What  material  treated  thus  far  in  this  course  would  you 
put  into  a  course  in  Personal  Efficiency? 

18.  What  from  this  course  would  you  put  into  a  popular 
text  on  applied  psychology? 


LESSON  17 

SPEECH  MATERIAL  AND  ITS  PREPARATION 

Tims  far  we  have  discussed  the  material  of  a  speech 
as  made  up  of  images,  concepts,  judgments,  and  argu- 
ments, and  we  have  shown  how  each  may  be  presented, 
how  each  may  be  demonstrated  as  representing  an  exist- 
ing actuality,  and  how  each  may  be  used  to  provoke 
feelings  and  acts  of  various  sorts.  All  this  implies  that 
the  materials  used  by  a  speaker — the  ideas  symbolized 
by  his  words — may  be  divided  and  subdivided  along 
psychological  lines. 

Now,  however,  we  wish  to  make  another  sort  of  sub- 
division— one  which  recognizes  that  part  of  this  various 
material  used  by  the  speaker  is  very  directly  limited  to  a 
particular  speech,  while  part  of  it  is  general  in  character. 
One  portion  is  the  heart  of  the  particular  message  itself, 
while  the  other  portion  is  a  kind  of  general  filling  or 
explanatory  accompaniment.  Every  speech  contains  a 
mixture  of  these  two  ingredients,  and  the  speaker  must 
discover  them — must  make  them  come  to  mind.  The  act 
of  bringing  forth  the  images,  ideas,  and  arguments  was 
known  by  the  ancient  writers  as  *  *  invention. ' '  But  inven- 
tion is  not  possible  in  the  case  of  a  particular  speech 
without  some  previous  preparation.  Furthermore,  the 
preparation  which  brings  forth  the  specific  subject-matter 
is  different  from  the  preparation  which  bears  the  general 
fruit.  In  this  lesson  we  shall  explain  the  nature  and 
purposes  of  these  two  kinds  of  matter  and  indicate 
methods  of  preparation  for  their  invention. 

:^11 


^ 


^^ 


p^  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

1.     Specific  Matter  and  General,  Matter 

The  following  passage  from  William  Wirt's  Eulogy  of 
Jefferson  and  Adams  (delivered  October  9,  1826,  in  the 
House  of  Representatives)  will  serve  to  illustrate,  within 
the  limits  of  a  paragraph,  the  two  kinds  of  matter  which 
are  presented  to  an  audience : 

Man  has  been  said  to  be  the  creature  of  accidental  position.  The  cast 
of  his  character  has  been  thought  to  depend  upon  the  age,  the  country, 
and  the  circumstances  in  which  he  has  lived.  To  a  considerable  extent, 
tile  remark  is,  no  doubt,  true.  CroniM-ell,  had  he  been  born  in  a  republic, 
luight  have  been  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood;  and,  but  for  those  civil 
commotions  which  wrought  his  mind  into  a  tempest,  even  Milton  might 
.have  rested  "mute  and  inglorious."  Tlie  occasion  is,  doubtless,  necessary 
to  develop  the  talent,  whatever  it  may  be;  but  the  talent  must  exist,  in 
the  embryo  at  least,  or  no  occasion  can  quicken  it  into  life.  And  it 
must  exist  too  imder  the  check  of  strong  virtues,  or  the  same  occasion 
that  quickens  it  into  life  will  be  extremely  apt  to  urge  it  on  to  crime. 
The  hero  who  finished  his  career  at  St.  Helena,  extraordinary  as  he  was, 
is  a  more  common  character  in  the  history  of  the  world  than  he  who 
sleeps  in  our  neighborhood,  embalmed  in  his  country's  tears,  or  than 
tliose  whom  we  have  now  met  to  mourn  and  honor. 

The  direct  thought  expressed  by  the  orator  in  this 
passage  is  somewhat  as  follows:  Although  time,  place, 
and  occasion  have  much  influence  in  determining  a  man's 
character,  still,  to  develop  great  talent,  an  embryo  of 
greatness  must  first  exist;  furthermore,  true  greatness 
requires  that  talent  be  checked  by  virtue.  This  specific 
message,  however,  is  very  compact  and  difficult  to  under- 
stand for  the  first  time  in  the  form  just  stated  by  us.  To 
make  the  meaning  more  open  and  clear,  to  adapt  it  to  the 
particular  audience,  general,  illustrative  matter  is  called 
into  service.  Wirt's  first  principle,  that  circumstances 
tend  to  develop  the  man,  is  made  concrete  by  recalling 
the  lives  of  two  men — Cromwell  and  Milton,  Similarly, 
Napoleon  is  a  particular  illustration  of  the  truth  that 
talent  unchecked  by  virtue  results  in  evil.  On  the  other 
hand,  AVashington  is  a  noble  type  where  talent  and  virtue 
go  hand  in  hand.  Now  these  happened  to  be  the  illustra- 
tions chosen  l)y  Wirt.  But  lie  could  have  found  others. 
No  matter.     Whatever  he  might  have  found  and  might 


SPEECH  IMATERTAL  313 

liavo  iis(m1  would  liave  been  drawn  from  liis  general  stock 
of  information  and  would  have  been  used  to  make  clear 
a  particular  thought. 

To  the  particular  audience  AN'irt  was  addressing,  it  was 
perfectly  clear  that  Washington  was  meant  by  'Mie  who 
sleeps  in  our  neighborhood,  embalmed  in  his  country's 
tears."  But  these  references  to  great  men  do  not 
exhaust  the  general  material  drawn  upon  by  the  speaker. 
The  very  use  of  such  expressions  as  ''republic,"  "guilt- 
less of  his  country's  blood,"  "those  civil  commotions," 
and  "embalmed  in  his  country's  tears"  imply  a  very 
extensive  and  versatile  mentality  and  give  some  hint  of 
the  vast  general  field  upon  which  the  speaker  drew. 
Indeed  it  is  almost  impossible  to  express  the  simplest 
thought  Avithout  calling  into  use  many  supplementary 
ideas  in  the  light  of  which  its  meaning  is  made  clear.  The 
very  related  nature  of  our  knowledge  makes  it  necessary 
for  us  to  express  a  single  idea  in  terms  requiring  informa- 
tion of  many  others. 

No  doubt  we  have  explained  the  nature  and  i)urpose  of 
these  two  kinds  of  matter;  next,  one  might  ask  in  what 
proportions  they  occur.  This  varies  in  different  sorts  of 
speeches.  In  eulogies,  commencement  addresses,  and 
occasional  speeches  of  all  kinds,  the  general  matter,  as  a 
rule,  preponderates;  but  in  technical,  legal,  and  argu- 
mentative speeches,  the  specific  matter  is  of  greater 
importance. 

2.     General  Material 

It  was  no  doubt  a  realization  of  the  importance  of  the 
general  matter  which  made  the  ancients  insist  that  the 
public  speaker  should  be  a  man  who  had  mastered  all 
human  knowledge.  "While  today  we  do  not  require  such 
an  enormous  prerequisite,  we  do  believe  that  the  orator 
should  be  a  man  of  exceptionally  wide,  general  informa- 
tion and  a  complete  master  of  the  particular  topic  on 


314  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

which  he  expresses  a  direct  message.  This  ineans  that 
a  man's  general  preparation  must  have  given  him  wide 
culture,  while  his  specific  preparation  for  a  particular 
speech  must  have  equipped  hnn  to  speak  with  authority 
on  a  definite  subject. 

Of  the  necessity  and  advantage  of  broad  culture  which 
renders  its  contributions  of  general  information,  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  It  enables  a  speaker  to  think  more 
clearly  on  any  particular  subject  which  he  may  wish  to 
discuss.  We  often  hear  it  said  that  this  is  the  age  of. 
specialization  and  that  the  mair^K)  would  succeed  must 
know  one  thing  thoroughly.  AJ^ery  true,  but  it  is  also 
true  that  the  broader  the  man's  culture,  the  better  able 
he  is  to  -become  a  specialist  in  some  limited  field.  His 
information  gained  from  wide  experience  prepares  him 
to  see  a  particular  subject  in  its  proper  proportion  and 
in  relation  to  other  things.  With  this  sense  of  relation- 
ship there  comes  the  possibility  of  keener  analysis.  See- 
ing the  bearing  upon  his  immediate  subject  of  a  consider- 
able field  of  human  knowledge,  the  man  is  able  to 
recognize  points  of  likeness  and  difference  which  would  be 
obscured  to  a  less  widely  informed  person.  But  not  only 
does  general  culture  improve  one's  thinking  on  a  particu- 
lar problem ;  it  also  aids  in  the  expression  of  the  results 
of  that  thinking.  It  provides  many  illustrations  and 
equivalent  forms  of  expression  to  meet  the  varying  needs 
of  individuals  in  the  audience. 

This  matter  of  expression  leads  us  to  turn  our  atten- 
tion, in  passing,  from  the  influence  of  general  information 
upon  the  mental  power  of  the  speaker  to  its  influence 
upon  his  style.  What  a  person  thinks  and  what  he  says,- 
as  well  as  how  he  says  it,  are  most  intimately  connected. 
AVhenever  a  speaker  attempts  to  illustrate  or  amplify  an 
idea,  he  reveals  his  limitations  and  colors  his  message. 
The  engineer  may  have  to  restrict  his  illustrations  to  the 
field  of  engineering;  the  doctor  talks  in  terms  of  illness 


SPEECH  MATERIAL  1115 

and  drugs;  the  nature  poet  gets  his  similes  from  the 
iiowers  of  tlie  phi  ins  and  the  torrents  of  the  mountains. 
Fortunate  indeed  is  he  who  is  at  home  in  all  fields.  The 
more  catholic  his  taste,  the  better  for  him  as  a  speaker, 
and  the  better  for  his  audiences.  Richness  of  style  comes 
from  breadth  of  general  resource. 

The  speech  of  a  cultivated  gentleman  abounds  in 
pleasing  and  illuminating  references  to  works  of  the 
world's  best  literature,  to  the  wonders  of  nature,  to  the 
joys  and  sorrows  of  the  human  heart.  The  many  sources 
from  which  he  draws  his  illustrations  enable  him  to  appeal 
to  minds  of  various  natures  and  capacities.  Deficiency 
here  is  sometimes  so  telling  in  its  effect  that  a  specialist 
in  a  particular  branch  is  unable  to  communicate  his 
expert  knowledge  to  others.  Many  a  clever  and  profound 
engineer  has  failed  to  impress  others  because  he  knew 
engineering  only  and  could  not  make  his  ideas  plain  to 
those  who  did  not  have  particular  knowledge  identical 
with  his  own.  Such  men  not  only  lose  in  pleasingness ; 
they  also  lose  in  simple  lucidity. 

(a)  General  Preparation 

How  to  acquire  the  general  material,  how  to  retain 
impressions  from  many  experiences,  and  how  to  system- 
atize those  experiences,  is  the  problem  of  general  educa- 
tion. What  is  acquired  represents  the  whole  man, 
intellectually.  We  cannot  here  outline  an  entire  system 
of  education  calculated  to  develop  the  well-rounded  man. 
Yet  a  few  special  hints  with  reference  to  the  special  needs 
of  a  speaker  may  be  given  with  propriety. 

1.  The  sense  perceptions  should  be  increased  and  the 
special  senses  trained.  In  Lesson  9,  page  163,  we 
remarked  that  many  people  are  one-sided  in  their  sense 
development,  that  some  are  impressed  with  the  sight 
elements  of  a  total  situation,  some  with  the  sound  ele- 


316  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKLXG 

ments  and  so  on.    Read  once  more  pages  163  to  167  for 
metliod  directions  for  sense-training. 

Travel  when  possible  and  observe  accurately  all  with 
which  you  come  in  contact.  Very  often  it  is  well  to 
recline  quietly  in  the  evening,  when  alone,  and  try  to 
revive  the  impressions  of  the  day,  gained  in  new 
surroundings. 

2.  Study  men,  not  only  as  an  exercise  in  sense  percep- 
tion, but  also  for  the  ideas  and  ideals  they  express. 
Cultivate  acquaintances  and  encourage  those  whom  you 
meet  to  talk  about  the  things  they  know  best,  sympathetic- 
ally responding  to  their  enthusiasm  about  the  hobbies 
they  love.  Through  the  conversation  of  others,  much  is 
learned  about  external  facts  and  a  keen  insight  is  had 
into  the  feelings  of  human  beings.  Of  course,  modes  of 
expression  are  there  also  for  observation  and  analysis. 

3.  Then  the  speaker  should  not  forget  the  great  com- 
pany of  silent  friends,  his  books.  They  present  the  whole 
range  of  knowledge,  arranged,  classified,  and  expressed 
by  masters.  Like  friends,  they  should  be  selected  witli 
care  and  appreciated  for  their  worth;  their  excellencies 
sliould  be  separated  from  their  faults  and  emulated. 

4.  All  this  observatioii  and  study  of  observable  and 
readable  things  must  be  supplemented  hj  careful  criti- 
cism. Accept  only  what  is  verifiable  as  fact  and  valid 
as  reasoning.  See  Lessons  13  (especially  the  pa.ssage 
beginning  on  page  245)  and  14. 

5.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  what  books  are  most  neces- 
sary for  general  reading.  President  Eliot,  of  Harvard, 
has  prepared  a  list  of  l)ooks  which  may  be  held  on  a  shelf 
five  feet  long  and  which,  he  says,  give  an  adequate  treat- 
ment of  the  essentials  of  a  liberal  education.  We  shall 
not  give  a  list  here  but  suggest  that  the  student  apply  to 
his  instructor  for  advice  wdiich  will  meet  his  individual 
needs.  No  man  who  wishes  to  be  a  good  speaker  should 
ever  cease  his  systematic  I'eading.     General  preparation 


SPEECH  MATERIAL  317 

is  never  at  an  end;  it  goes  on  as  long  as  lifo  continues. 
Physical  growth  has  its  restricted  period,  but  mental  and 
spiritual  enrichment  has  no  limits. 

(h)  Ai-ailahilifij  of  Geueral  Material 

All  this  general  mass  of  riches,  gathered  from  personal 
observation,  conversation,  or  reading,  must  be  readily 
accessible.  It  cannot  be  *' crammed"  for  an  occasion.  It 
must  be  slowly  acquired,  digested,  and  thoroughly 
absorbed,  so  that  it  is  a  part  of  the  man  himself  and 
impregnates  all  his  thoughts  both  as  to  nature  and 
method.  During  delivery  all  this  matter  comes  to  hand 
without  conscious  effort.  The  speaker  does  not  pay  great 
attention  to  this  explanatory,  filling-in,  or  embellishing 
part  of  his  speech,  he  is  free  to  concentrate  on  the  line  of 
his  direct  and  specific  message.  The  intellectual  sub- 
stance of  the  man  flows  forth  to  sustain  and  make  clear 
the  particular  thought  of  a  definite  sx)eecli. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  speaker  keep  a  collection 
of  general  facts  and  materials  by  means  of  a  card  cata- 
logue or  other  filing  device,  so  that  the  accumulations  of 
a  lifetime  may  be  preserved  in  an  orderly  form.  The 
suggestion,  though,  springs  from  a  misconception  of  the 
use  to  which  a  speaker  puts  '^the  accumulations  of  a  life- 
time." He  draws  from  this  fund  to  illuminate  the 
immediate  topic  of  his  discourse,  on  the  spur  of  the 
moment,  during  actual  composition — an  operation  which 
requires  the  matter  to  be  stored  in  his  head  and  not  in 
some  pigeonholes  or  in  a  card  cabinet.  To  be  sure,  it  is 
desirable  for  him  to  make  use  of  a  modern  well-catalogued 
reference  library  while  engaged  in  an  exhaustive  study  of 
the  special  subject  of  a  particular  speech,  but  the  general 
fund  of  information,  with  its  accompanying  attitude 
toward  life  (not  to  be  confused  with  the  special  facts  of 
an  immediate  topic)  is  useful  only  so  far  as  it  can  be 


318  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

spontaneously  drawn  upon  during  the  process  of  delivery, 
or  composition. 

What  a  wretched  substitute  would  a  card  catalogue  be 
for  such  an  acquisition,  embedded  in  the  very  personality 
of  the  man !  No  speaker  can  foresee  wlien  he  may  have 
to  draw  upon  this  source,  and  one  who  has  laboriously 
looked  up  his  illustrative  material  will  «be  at  a  loss  for 
resources  when  he  most  needs  them  during  delivery. 
Consequently,  we  conclude  that  instead  of  having  a  card 
catalogue  to  help  out  in  this  manner,  the  speaker  must 
have  an  excellent  memory;  not  the  parrot-like  memory 
of  certain  facts  and  incidents,  but  a  cultivated  retention 
of  ideas  grouped  according  to  their  relationships  and 
bearings  upon  the  problems  of  life.  The  ability  to  retrin 
incidents  and  truths  in  a  definite  functioning  scheme  is 
best  acquired  by  meditation  upon  everything  experienced. 
Nothing  should  be  thought  of  in  an  unrelated  manner,  but 
the  mind  should  be  exercised  in  the  habit  of  grasping 
everything  new  with  a  full  consciousness  of  its  relation 
to  the  old.  Such  a  mind  beco*nes  a  veritable  wellspring 
of  facts  and  intellectual,  aesthetic,  and  ethical  ideals 
from  which  the  orator  brings  forth  his  sparkling  ideas. 
No  card  system  can  meet  the  requirements. 

3.     Special  Material 

While  the  general  material  of  a  speech  cannot  well  be 
looked  up  fo'F  a  particular  address,  the  special  informa- 
tion or  immediate  topic  must  be  consciously  prepared  and 
deliberately  acquired  with  its  use  in  view.  Or,  at  least, 
it  must  be  deliberately  reviewed,  verified,  and  arranged. 
Success  here  does  no-t  necessarily  reflect  culture,  but  it 
does  indicate  accuracy  and  secures  for  the  speaker  the 
hearing  due  to  an  authority.  Of  course,  if  the  speech  is 
to  be  made  on  a  topic  included  in  a  man's  life-work,  then 
the  special  looking  up  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.     Nearly 


SPEECH  MATERIAL  319 

every  one  has  heard  of  Webster's  coiimieiit  that  if  Hayne 
]ia(l  written  a  speech  especially  (lesigiied  to  be  refuted 
by  all  of  Webster's  years  of  study  and  meditation,  he 
could  not  have  succeeded  better  than  he  did  in  his  effort 
which  called  forth  the  famous  ''Reply." 

However,  such  complete  preparation  for  a  particular 
address,  ready  at  hand,  is  the  exception  rather  than  the 
ruh\  Even  experts  in  certain  fields  prefer  to  look  up 
their  material  and  go  over  it  carefully  before  they  give 
it  utterance.  It  is  a  good  rule  never  to  speak  impromptu 
(without  having  prepared  the  direct  line  of  thought  in 
advance)  except  when  circumstances  make  escape  impos- 
si])le.  While  a  mistake  in  literary  reference,  clumsiness 
ill  expression,  or  even  a  violation  of  the  usage  of  good 
grammar  may  be  charitably  overlooked,  or  forgiven,  a 
misstatement  of  any  of  the  important  special  facts  of  an 
address  cannot  be  allowed  to  pass  unchallenged. 

Exactly  what  will  constitute  the  special  matter  depends 
u])on  the  purpose  of  the  speech  in  a  given  case.  It  is  the 
matter  on  which  the  speaker  fastens  his  attention  when 
planning  a  speech  with  a  definite  end  in  view.  He  believes 
that  such-and-such  material  will  make  the  desired  impres- 
sion. He  will  be  sure  to  put  that  on  record,  no  matter 
how  he  may  pad  it  out,  illustrate  it,  and  adapt  it  to  the 
audience  before  him. 

(a)  Method  of  Research 

The  preparation  of  the  special  material  should  be  most 
thorough.    It  should  insur.e  completeness  and  accuracy. 

1.  Personal  observation  is  most  satisfactory.  Its 
weakness  is  one  of  limitation  in  scope  rather  than  trust- 
worthiness. While  making  your  personal  research, 
answer  in  a  satisfactory  manner  the  following  questions : 

(a )  Am  I  competent  by  equiymient  and  training  to  make 
trustworthv  observations  ? 


820  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(b)  Have  I  planned  a  systematic  order  of  investigation 

which  will  insure  thorough  exploration  of  the 

field? 

Then  start  gathering  your  material  making  notes  in  an 

orderly  manner.     Be  careful  to  separate  observed  facts 

from  inferences.     (See  Lesson  13,  pages  233  and  234.) 

Later  in  this  lesson  (page  322)  we  shall  describe  a  form 

of  note-taking  for  reading  research  which  may  be  used 

for  the  recording  of  direct  observations. 

2.  Conversafion  with  authorities  in  a  given  field  is 
next  in  value.  It  is  superior  to  the  consultation  of  writ- 
ten reports  because  questions  to  remove  misunderstand- 
ings are  possible,  and  the  man  consulted  can  amplify  this 
or  reduce  the  time  given  to  that  according  to  the  needs 
of  the  investigator.  Li  other  words,  the  information  is 
sought  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  investigator  and  not 
some  general  notion  of  popular  demand. 

Of  course  the  men  consulted  must  be  weighed  in  the 
balance  which  is  prepared  for  all  witnesses.  (See 
Lesson  13,  page  240.) 

3.  Systematic  readhifi  may  be  undertaken  according 
to  the  following  plan : 

(a)  Make  as  complete  a  bibliograpliy  as  you  can.  This 
list  of  books  may  be  compiled  as  follows  : 
I.  Go  to  the  card  catalogue  in  the  library  to  which 
you  have  access,  and  under  the  general  title 
of  the  subject  and  all  allied  subjects,  list  the 
available  books,  with  the  names  of  the 
authors  and  the  publishers  and  years  of  pub- 
lication. For  instance,  you  are  preparing  a 
speech  on  Lal)oi-  Unions  and  th(»  Laws. 
You  look  up  Labor  Union  and  the  allied 
subjects  of  Trade  Unions,  Labor,  Work, 
Strike,  Lockout,  Workman's  Compensa- 
tion, Lijunctions,  Sti'ikes,  Lockouts,  I>oy- 
cotls,     etc.     TTndcr     cacli     of     llicsc     heads, 


SPEECH  MATERIAL  321 

you  will  find  various  books  by  various 
authors.  List  them  as  directed.  The  names 
of  the  authors  will  be  the  next  line  of  inves- 
tigation. Finding  that  Sidney  Webb  wrote 
The  Histonj  of  Trade  Unionism,  you  consult 
the  author's  list  and  see  what  other  books 
he  wrote  in  the  same  general  field.  Under 
Webb  you  will  find  Industrial  Democracy 
and  many  others.  List  all  these.  Later,  as 
you  read  these  books,  you  will  find  references 
to  others  which  you  may  have  missed.  For 
instance,  in  the  sections  of  the  Report  of  the 
Industrial  Commission  which  deal  with  labor 
legislation,  you  may  find  reference  to  Stim- 
son's  Handbook  of  the  Labor  Laws  of  the 
United  States.    List  all  such  books. 

It  is  well  to  make  your  bibliography  in 
card  form,  with  a  card  for  each  book,  as 
follows : 


Title  of  Book 

Autlior     

Publislieis     Date . 

Remarks  on  nature,  etc 


II.  After  exhausting  the  book  literature,  take  up 
the  magazine  literature  of  the  subject  in  the 
same  way.  Look  up  each  general  subject, 
subsubject,  and  author  in  Poole's  Index  and 
the  Eeader's  Guide,  reference  works  which 
keep  the  articles  in  all  the  good  magazines 
indexed  up  to  the  last  month.  Make  a  card 
bibliography  for  magazine  articles  in  a  way 
similar  to  that  just  suggested  for  books,  sub- 
stituting for  "Publishers,"  ''Name  of  Maga- 
zine   Date Page. ' ' 

It  pays  to  put  much  time  on  compiling  a 


322  P]PFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

bibliograpliy  before  starting  tlie  reading. 
One  is  often  enabled  to  get  the  best  works  in 
the  best  order,  thus  saving  much  duplication 
and  unprofitable  work. 

(b)  Before  reading  books  through,  it  is  well  to  read 

carefully  the  index  or  chapter  heads  of  several 
books.  Indeed,  a  careful  investigator  will  put 
the  titles  of  all  the  chapters  of  each  book  on  the 
back  of  its  bibliography  card.  This  step  also 
saves  some  unnecessary  reading  and  often  guides 
the  course  of  the  reading  in  a  most  profitable 
manner. 

(c)  Note-taking  should  also  proceed  systematically.    A 

loose-leaf  book  should  be  used.    Head  each  page 
with   the   title    of   the    book    or   magazine,   the 
chapter  or  article,  the  page,  and  the  author.    In 
some  cases,  even  minute  subdivisions  of  informa- 
tion may  be  given  separate  sheets  w^ith  appro- 
priate headings.    After  all  notes  are  taken,  they 
can  be  removed  from  the  book  cover  and  rear- 
ranged to  the  best  advantage.    This  makes  pos- 
sible the  bringing  together  of  all  the  information 
obtained  from  all  sources,  on  a  given  point. 
It  is  only  after  a  most  thorough,  special  preparation, 
through    observation,    interview,    and    reading    that    a 
speaker  begins  to  plan  his  speech.    For  simple  plans,  see 
Lessons  1  and  2.    For  more  general  plans,  see  Lesson  6, 
page  86,  and  for  elaborate  detailed  planning,  see  the  brief 
in  Lesson  15,  pages  273  to  284. 

The  special  preparation  is  good  in  pi'oportion  as  it 
gives  the  speaker  authoritative  mastery  of  all  the  details 
of  the  matter  about  wliicli  he  is  speaking.  Of  course,  a 
busy  man  in  the  rush  of  life  is  often  called  on  to  make  a 
speech  when  he  cannot  i)0ssibly  prepare  the  material  in 
a  perfect  manner.  AVell,  he  must  do  the  best  he  can  under 
the  circumstances,  but  lie  will   soon  discover  that  it  is 


SPEECH  MATERIAL  323 

better  not  to  speak  at  all  than  to  speak  when  entirely 
nnprepared. 

4.     Conclusion 

"We  hope  that  it  has  been  made  clear  in  this  lesson  that 
hard  work  is  the  foundation  of  success  in  speech-making 
as  in  other  branches  of  human  endeavor.  There  is  no 
royal  road,  a  lifetime  must  be  given  to  general  improve- 
ment, and  for  each  speech  the  special  preparation  must 
be  adequate.  To  be  born  with  the  ''gift  of  gab"  is  no 
great  blessing  unless  the  "gift  of  capacity  for  hard  work" 
goes  with  it.  One  who  speaks  readily  but  has  no  thoughts 
worth  expressing  is  as  a  sounding  brass  and  a  tinkling 
cymbal.  Furthermore,  fatal  facility  has  been  the  cause 
of  more  than  one  downfall.  The  empty  word-maker  may 
last  for  a  short  while, .but  truth  lives  forever;  one  cannot 
find  the  truth  to  give  it  voice,  without  effort  in  painstaking 
preparation. 


Assignment  of  Work 


The  wiitte'ii  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in   vour  notebook. 


First  Day. — Select  some  well-known  speech  that  appeals  to  yo-i 
and  write  it  out  in  full.  Take  such  a  speech  as  Patrick 
Henry's  Appeal  to  Arms,  Webster's  Bunker  Hill  Orafio)i, 
Wendell  Phillips'  Toussaint  L'Ouverlurc,  or  Bryan's  Cross 
of  Gold.  Then  make  a  skeleton  statement  of  its  direct 
thought,  thus  separating  the  specially  prepared  matter  from 
the  general  matter.  When  this  is  done,  count  the  special 
references,  and  departments  of  information  which  appear 
in  the  general  matter. 

Second  Day. — Turn  to  an  encyclopedia  and  note  the  brief 
account  of  ''The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,"  "The  Sinking  of 
the  Maine,"  "The  Life  of  Lincoln."  "Andrew  Jackson," 
and  other  subjects  which  appeal  to  you.    Select  one  of  these, 


324  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

and  using  the  encyclopedia  article  as  the  material  of  your 
direct  message,  write  out  an  interesting  and  readable  speech 
on  the  subject.  In  doing  this,  do  you  find  a  wealth  of  general 
matter  ready  at  hand  to  help  you  illuminate  and  embellish 
your  message? 

Third  Day. — Carefully  analyze  your  speech  and  determine  the 
points  of  strength  and  weakness  in  your  general  preparation. 
Is  your  knowledge  of  one  field  the  only  thing  you  have  to 
lean  on?  How  may  you  enlarge  and  enrich  your  general 
stock  of  ideas? 

Fourth  Z>a^.— Get  the  Eliot  list  of  books  or  any  other  good  list 
and  check  off  those  you  have  read.  Then  plan  yourself  a 
course  of  reading,  seeking  breadth  rather  than  specialization 
in. one  line. 

Fifth  Day.— Start  a  record  book  of  new  things  you  learn  by 
observation,  conversation,  and  reading.  This  is  not  so  miich 
a  storehouse  for  future  reference  as  a  means  of  informing 
you  when  you  are  falling  behind  and  of  encouraging  you  to 
systematic  enrichment  of  your  mind. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

Those  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
liis  knowledge  of  tlie  principles  in  this  lesson.  'Ilicy 
are  sufrf/cfitirc  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  special  matter  or  direct  message .' 

2.  AVliat  is  meaut  by  general  matter? 

3.  What  (lid  ancient,  rhetoricians  mean  by  the  term 
"invention"  ? 

4.  IIow  broad  should  the  general  information  and  interests 
of  a  public  speaker  be?  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  width 
of  his  intellectual  view  and  the  effectiveness  lie  would  have  with 
many  audiences  of  varying  character? 

5.  Which  would  you  rather  have,  general  knowledge  of 
many  subjects  or  a  thorough  knowledge  of  one  subject  ?  ]\Iust 
you  make  a  choice  ?  Cannot  the  two  go  hand  in  hand  ?  How 
are  they  mutually  helpful  ? 

6.  Can  you  make  out  a  schedule  of  lines  of  improvement  for 
general  preparedness? 

7.  Have  you  ever  heard  of  the  five- foot  bookshelf  before? 
Have  you  seen  the  list  of  books  included?  Have  you  read  any 
of  the  books? 

8.  How  useful  would  a  card  catalogue  of  general  material 

be? 

9.  What  would  you  call  the  index  of  thorough,  general 
[)reparation  ? 

10.     Has  a  brief  any  relation  to  special  material? 

n.     What  are  the  three  sources  of  special  material  mentioned 
in  this  lesson  ? 

12.     What  are  the  steps  in  concentrated  reading  up  for  the 
special  material  ? 

18.     What  is  the  best  system  of  note-taking? 

14.     Is    there    any    relation    between    hard   work   on    subject- 
matter  and  success  in  speech-making  ? 
825 


326  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

15.  Who  Avas  William  Wirt?  Croi^well?  Hayne ?  Eliot? 
JMilton  ?    Toussaint  L  'Ouverture  ? 

16.  How  would  you  go  about  it  to  gather  material  on  the 
following  subject :  St.  Helena  ?  Labor  Unions  ?  Lockouts  .* 
Bunker  Hill  ?    Lincoln  ?    Jime  Apples  ? 

17.  What  books  do  you  like  to  read?  Why?  Do  you  keep  a 
record  of  the  books  you  read?    Would  it  not  be  worth  doing? 

18.  Do  you  know  anyone  with  "the  gift  of  gab"?  Has  he 
the  "gift  of  capacity  for  hard  work"? 


y 


LESSON  18 

ATTENTION  OF  THE  SPEAKER  AND  OF  THE  AUDIENCE 

All  who  have  endured  dreary  sermons  will  agree  that 
it  would  be  well  for  every  speaker  to  study  methods  of 
holding  the  attention  of  the  audience.  But  the  need  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  speaker's  own  attention  to  what  he 
is  doing,  is  not  so  obvious.  Yet  many  faults  of  delivery, 
faults  which  irritate  the  audience  and  embarrass  the 
speaker  himself,  are  directly  traceable  to  variations  in 
his  attitude  toward  different  aspects  of  delivery.  Ram- 
blings  and  digressions  are  clearly  the  results  of  poorly 
regulated  attention.  So  also  are  many  parentheses  and 
retracings  of  the  line  of  thought.  The  inaccurate  use  of 
words  as  well  as  over-attention  to  words  to  the  detriment 
of  the  development  of  the  thought,  reflect  bad  economy 
in  the  matter  of  attention.  Indeed  there  are  many  things 
of  this  kind  which  may  well  be  considered  by  a  speaker, 
since  they  will  reveal  the  necessity  of  organizing  the 
attention  along  satisfactory  and  efficient  lines. 

1.     General  Nature  of  Attention 

No  one  has  defined  attention  in  a  thoroughly  satisfac- 
tory manner;  yet  all  agree  upon  the  existence  of  certain 
aspects.  We  shall  not  take  time  to  settle  the  exact  nature 
of  this  mental  state  from  a  psychological  point  of  view, 
but  we  shall  describe  some  of  the  undeniable  aspects 
which  are  of  vital  importance  to  the  speaker. 

One  cannot  discuss  the  subject  at  all  Avithout  first 
assuming  a  self  and  a  non-self — that  is,  a  person  and 

827 


328  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

something  to  which  the  person  may  attend.  The  self  is 
the  mind,  and  the  object  attended  to  is  whatever  the  mind 
is  thinking  about  in  a  conscious  manner.^ 

This  thinking  mind  is  assailed  with  a  multitude  of 
objects  which  compete  for  its  attention.  There  are 
sounds  to  be  listened  to,  thousands  of  them,  some  loud 
and  some  low ;  sights  to  be  viewed ;  smells  to  be  sensed ; 
and  furthermore  there  are  springing  up  from  within, 
thoughts  and  feelings  not  immediately  connected  with 
things  outside.  What  shall  the  mind  attend  to  at  a  given 
time!  What  shall  it  select  to  take  in,  or  what  will  force 
its  way  in  whether  the  mind  wants  to  choose  it  or  not! 
As  a  speaker  talks,  he  can  give  varying  degrees  of  atten- 
tion to  various  things.  Will  he  watch  his  audience  most 
carefully,  will  he  regulate  his  speech  in  a  precise  manner, 
will  he  concentrate  on  his  train  of  thought? 

As  we  have  already  hinted  above  and  as  was  implied 
in  the  lesson  on  action,  stimuli  which  assail  the  mind  and 
compete  for  attention  may  be  external — as  books,  pic- 
tures, people  and  all  kinds  of  tangible  objects — or,  as 
mental  processes  and  thoughts,  they  may  spring  from 
within.  Just  as  the  very  apparently  outside  objects  are 
attended  to  by  the  mind,  so  the  thoughts  are  atte^'iJed 
to  in  a  similar  manner  and  never  confused  with  the  self. 
To  put  it  concretely  for  a  speaker,  he  can  attend  to  his 
train  of  reasoning  just  as  well  as  he  can  attend  to  the 
expression  of  a  listener's  face.  In  short,  it  is  possible 
to  attend  to  real  things  and  to  ideal  things,  to  what  is 
physically  before  us  and  to  what  is  in  the  mind  only. 

To  the  innumerable  candidates  for  the  center  of  atten- 
tion, the  mind  makes  responses  in  various  ways.     Some 


iQf  coiirso  we  know  that  it  is  (iiirn-ult  to  make  a  ]3sycliologically 
corroct  and  scientific  sej)aration  of  the  niiiul  from  the  materials  it  works 
over.  But  ])ractical  pood  sense  insists  tliat  tliere  is  a  difference  between 
the  thinking  mind  and  wliat  it  is  thinking  abo\it — a  difference  between 
the  subjective  self  and  the  tiling  (object)  to  which  that  self  pays 
attention. 


ATTENTION  ;?29 

things  are  given  the  very  focus  of  attention  itself,  others 
are  less  clearly  taken  in,  some  are  but  vaguely  appre- 
hended, and  some  never  cross  the  threshold  of  attention 
at  all  and  are  as  though  not  existing.  Concretely,  a 
speaker  may  remain  utterly  unconscious  of  a  draft  or  a 
flickering  light  on  the  platform,  he  may  be  faintly  aware 
of  uneasy  moving  in  the  audience,  while  clear  in  the 
center  of  his  consciousness  is  the  idea  he  is  trying  to 
drive  home. 

The  attentive  mind  may  therefore  be  said  to  be  divided 
into  zones.  The  central  zone  or  focus  has  clear,  sharp, 
strong  images  and  ideas,  the  contents  of  the  next  zone  are 
not  so  clear,  while  out  at  the  edge  impressions  weaken 
into  nothingness.  AA^e  must  determine  just  wdiat  should 
.  be  sharpest  in  the  attention  of  a  man  during  the  delivery 
of  a  speech — what  should  be  in  the  focus,  what  should  be 
in  mind  but  not  in  the  focus,  and  what  should  be  shut  out 
altogether, 

2.     Stages  of  Attention" 

All  attention  is  alike  in  that  it  is  a  condition  which 
brings  about  clearest  mental  content.  But  we  can  speak 
of  three  stages  or  arrangements  of  circumstances  which 
promote  this  clearness  and  vividness  of  thought.  The 
first  of  these  we  may  call  involuntary  attention,  the  sec- 
ond, voluntary  or  selective,  and  the  third,  habitual.  In 
Lesson  4,  pages  49  to  54,  we  spoke  of  the  first  two  of 
these  kinds  of  attention,  the  involuntary  and  the  volun- 
tary, when  we  said  that  a  speaker  could,  at  the  outset, 
get  the  attention  of  his  audience  either  by  a  sudden  shock 
(so  that  they  involuntarily  respond  by  attention)  or  by 
promise  of  reward  (so  that  they  voluntarily  set  aside 
other  thoughts  and  concentrate  on  what  is  being  said). 
A  third  kind  of  attention  is  the  habitual,  in  which  one  is 
working  with  liis  whole  mind  along  a  certain  line  so  that 


330  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ho  is  immune  from  outside  distractions.  ^Ye  have  seen  a 
man  so  in  earnest  about  making  clear  a  pet  idea  of  his 
own  that  he  noticed  neither  the  amused  smiles  or  indif- 
ference of  some,  nor  even  the  derisive  snickers  and  ges- 
tures of  others. 

1.  Involuntary  attention  is  the  attention  one  is  forced 
to  give  to  a  thing  because  it  violently  thrusts  itself  in. 
Thus  a  loud  noise  assails  the  senses  so  that  we  drop  what- 
ever else  we  are  doing  and  attend  to  it.  Any  violent  or 
marked  break  in  the  existing  order  of  things  has  this 
effect.  In  a  boiler^factory  a  sudden  hush  as  the  machin- 
ery stops  attracj:s'  this  sort  of  attention  quite  as  well  as 
an  explosiom^n  a  quiet,  open  country.  Intense  things, 
strange  things,,  sudden  things,  all  compel  involuntary 
attention.  This  attention  is  held  just  so  long  as  the  kind 
of  attraction  mentioned  lasts.  Of  course  what  is  novel 
or  striking  to  one  person  may  not  be  at  all  so  to  another, 
and  tiling,  like  all  other  mental  matters,  attention  is  per- 
so^^i^^ike  the  impulsive  act,  involuntary  attention  is 
gY^"$ontaneously  and  without  reflection. 

2.  Voluntary  attention,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  at- 
tention we  deliberately  choose  to  give  in  the  face  of  com- 
peting bids.  Other  things  may  be  present  to  distract, 
but  the  attention  stays  fixed  where  the  individual  volun- 
tarily determines  it  shall  be.  A  speaker  might  tend  to 
lose  heart  in  his  task  as  he  sees  no  progress  with  his 
audience,  but  he  can  determine  to  stick  to  it,  paying  no 
attention  to  the  uncomfortable  atmosphere.  He  may  sud- 
denly get  a  brilliant  idea  to  present  which  would  give  him 
great  pleasure,  but  his  better  judgment  says  that  it  would 
detract  from  the  main  message  and  he  sets  the  tempting- 
distraction  aside  voluntarily,  in  order  to  attend  strictly 
to  what  he  had  planned  to  say. 

3.  Habitual  attention  or  settled  attention  comes  when 
one  is  so  absorbed  in  the  thing  to  which  he  is  attending 
that  other  things  have  no  power  to  hold  him.    In  invol- 


ATTENTION  331 

initaiy  attention,  there  is  no  struggle,  for  tlie  strong- 
impress  of  the  object  breaks  through  any  semblance  of 
resistance  on  the  part  of  the  subject;  in  habitual  atten- 
tion the  subject  is  still  so  strong  and  so  settled  in  its 
attention  to  the  object  that  no  other  object  has  any  power 
of  distraction.  In  neither  case  is  the  person  aware  of  any 
competition. 

When  the  speaker  or  hearer  is  aware  of  a  divergent 
pull,  then  the  attention  given  in  one  direction  or  the  other 
is  voluntary. 

3.     Attextiox  of  the  Speakek  Dueixg  Preparation 

During  the  preparation  of  a  speech,  it  is  highly  desir- 
able that  the  speaker  develop  habitual  attention.  He 
should  engage  in  his  research  with  such  absorption  that 
nothing  else  can  tear  him  from  it.  To  his  reading  and 
investigation  he  must  give  undivided  and  sustained 
application. 

Of  course  interest  plays  a  large  part.  Interest  is  a 
feeling  of  satisfaction  or  anticipation  of  satisfaction 
experienced  when  dealing  with  that  which,  because  of  our 
general  tendencies  or  deliberate  judgments,  is  pleasant 
or  desirable.  What  are  then  the  interests  of  a  speaker 
which  will  start  him  on  research  and  careful  preparation 
and  lead  to  habitual  absorption  until  the  task  is  finished  ? 
They  are : 

1.     Interest  in  the  object  to  be  attained  by  moving 
the  audience. 

-    2.     Interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  audience,  which 

can  be  secured  through  a  thorough  presentation  of 

the  matter  to  be  prepared. 

3.     Interest  in  the  subject  matter  itself. 

Unless  one  and  preferably  all  of  these  interests  exist, 

the  speaker  will  find  his  preparation  great  drudgery,  and 

he  will  break  his  application  to  it  before  the  habit  stagie 


332  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

of  attention  is  reached ;  furthermore,  in  most  such  cases 
he  has  no  business  to  speak  at  all,  for  he  has  no  real  pur- 
pose or  message. 

If  the  desired  absorption  conies,  then  the  mind  is  recep- 
tive to  a  high  degree  to  all  things  which  are  allied  to  the 
matter  at  hand,  and  all  other  things  are  shut  out.  Here 
of  course  we  touch  the  matter  of  research  for  the  special 
material,  referred  to  in  the  last  lesson.  It  is  astonishing 
what  can  be  produced  when  the  searcher  is  thoroughly 
wrapped  up  in  his  task.  Lawyers  beginning  to  look  up 
an  interesting  case  soon  settle  down  to  sustained  atten- 
tion and  will  stay  up  all  night  going  over  evidence  and 
consulting  the  statutes ;  scientists  working  out  the  details 
of  new  discoveries  neglect  meals  and  are  oblivious  to  the 
passage  of  time;  ministers  planning  sermons  close  to 
their  hearts  concentrate  on  their  preparation  and  neglect 
all  else.  It  is  only  in  this  state  that  the  best  result  is 
produced. 

Furthermore  this  stage  of  attention  brings  with  it 
almost  unlimited  powers  of  sustained  effort.  Though 
started  by  interests,  when  developed  into  a  habit  of  con- 
centration, exciting  emotions  and  feelings  subside  and 
a  great  degree  of  calm  prevails.  So  also  the  physical 
strain  attendant  upon  sudden  involuntary  attention  and 
the  strain  of  conflict  in  the  voluntary,  are  absent.  Con- 
sequently muscular  sensations  and  efforts  as  well  as  dis- 
turbing feelings  are  not  present  to  any  considerable 
degree,  to  produce  fatigue. 

But  habitual  attention  to  material  cannot  be  secured  at 
a  bound;  one  must  school  one's  self  to  it.  At  first,  other 
things  will  tend  to  draw  the  speaker  away  from  his  books, 
there  are  conflicts,  and  he  gives  voluntary  attention  to 
the  task  at  hand.  A  number  of  these  viciories  will  pave 
the  way  to  settled,  habitual  attention  to  research  matter. 
The  concentration  of  great  minds  is  the  result  of  long 
schooling.    Therefore  if  you  discover  that  you  skip  from 


ATTENTION  333 

one  thing  to  another  and  are  easily  distracted,  it  is  time 
for  yon  to  fight  the  tendency  and  guide  your  attention 
by  a  knowledge  of  your  best  interests  as  a  speaker  and 
a  man.  When  the  great  victory  is  won  and  the  habit  of 
hard  work  established,  what  can  you  not  conquer? 

4.     Attention  of  the  Speaker  During  Delivery 

During  delivery,  the  speaker  is  on  the  alert,  in  an 
attentive  state  calculated  to  take  advantage  of  any  turn 
of  affairs.  To  his  speech  and  all  appertaining  to  it,  he 
pays  voluntary  attention.  The  central  zone  of  greatest 
clearness  is  held  by  the  main  trend  Qf  his  thought.  In  the 
zone  of  awareness  are  such  things  a^  the  appearance  and 
actions  of  the  audience,  and  incidental  ideas  which  come 
and  go  as  he  talks,  but  which  do  not  divert  him  from  his 
planned  course  unless  he  chooses  to  be  so  diverted. 
Then,  in  that  event,  the  new,  selected  idea,  for  a  time, 
occupies  the  central  zone  and  the  previously  planned  mat- 
ter is  at  the  next  degree  of  intensity,  clearness,  and 
urgency  in  his  mind.  Distractions  which  threaten  to 
become  serious  obstacles  are  in  a  distant  zone  of  indis- 
tinctness, but  the  speaker  is  not  so  absorbed  in  his  central 
thought  as  to  be  unable  to  shift  to  them  if  they  grow  in 
importance.  To  illustrate,  suppose  that  a  speaker  is 
proceeding  nicely  with  his  previously  planned  argument 
clearly  before  him  and  he  is  unaware  of  the  puzzled  ex- 
pression on  the  faces  of  some  of  those  before  him.  He 
must  not  be  so  absorbed  as  to  permit  that  thing  to  go 
unnoticed  too  long.  He  swings  his  attention  to  the  fur- 
ther zone,  bringing  out  clear  for  a  moment  the  distrac- 
tion which  was  vague.  Then  if  it  is  of  a  character  to 
warrant  full  attention,  he  lets  his  theme  settle  into  second 
place  while  the  intruded  situation  is  being  disposed  of. 
Then  again,  he  voluntarily  elevates  his  main  line  of  dis- 
course to  the  first  place.     In  other  words,  during  deliv- 


I 


334  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPExUvING 

ery  the  speaker  should  be  constantly  exercising  voluntary 
attention,  shifting  the  focus  from  item  to  item  according 
to  the  dictates  of  efficiency. 

5.     What   Should   Not   Receive   Conscious  Attention 

The  delivery  of  a  speech  is  a  very  complicated  process 
which  involves  the  calling  forth  and  ordering  of  ideas; 
the  association  of  appropriate  words  to  express  those 
ideas ;  the  pronunciation  of  the  words  and  the  attendant 
breathing,  phonation  and  articulation;  the  association 
and  execution  of  expressive  gestures,  and  the  noting  of 
all  the  signs  of  receptivity  on  the  part  of  the  audience. 
If  one  were  to  try  to  pay  full  attention  to  each  of  these 
activities,  none  would  be  performed  well.  Nature  has 
helped  us  out  so  that,  granted  attention  to  some,  the  oth- 
ers are  set  automatically  in  motion  and  take  care  of  them- 
selves. Let  us  enumerate  those  things  which  should  be 
below  the  threshold  of  attention  and  take  care  of  them- 
selves during  speech  delivery. 

1.  Breathing  should  not  hold  the  attention  of  the 
speaker.  Correct  habits  of  breathing  should  be  estab- 
lished so  that  the  machine  runs  itself,  just  as  the  habit 
of  walking  is  such  as  to  direct  the  walking  while  we  are 
thinking  of  all  sorts  of  things  except  the  movements  of 
our  feet.  During  breathing  exercises  the  movements  of 
the  diaphragm  and  all  the  other  mechanism  should  re- 
ceive full  attention  (see  Lesson  7)  but  this  exercise  must 
have  its  effect  on  the  habitual  mode  of  breathing  and  that 
habit  should  hold  sway  during  delivery  without  engross- 
ing the  mind.  If  one  is  attending  to  his  breathing,  some- 
thing is  wrong  and  furthermore  the  expression  of  thought 
is  likely  to  be  hampered.  So  also  Posture  should  take 
care  of  itself.    Read  once  more  pages  122-24,  Lesson  7. 

2.  Vocahidary  use  or  the  selection  of  proper  words  in 
a  given  place,  should  bo  almost  automatic.    One  who  has 


ATTENTION  335 

to  pay  attention  to  tlie  choice  of  words  is  in  need  of  vocab- 
ulary building  exercises.  During  such  exercises,  the 
attention  is  primarily  on  them  but  during  delivery,  speech 
habits  should  prevail.  Yet  here,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
process  of  choosing  words  should  be  at  the  fringe  of 
attention,  ready  to  spring  to  the  center  if  difficulty  is 
experienced  in  finding  adequate  means  of  expression.  If, 
however,  this  difficulty  is  chronic,  your  vocabulary  is 
poor  and  you  must  do  more  work  along  the  lines  sug- 
gested in  Lessons  10  and  11. 

3.  Pronunciation  also  should  take  care  of  itself.  But 
like  the  choice  of  words,  it  may  once  in  a  while  demand 
the  center  of  attention. 

4.  Gestures  and  attitudes  take  care  of  themselves. 
We  shall  speak  of  this  at  some  length  in  a  later  lesson. 
Just  now  we  may  say  that  most  gestures  are  part  of  the 
physical  adjustment  which  is  a  natural  part  of  the  feel- 
ing or  emotion  experienced  at  a  given  time,  and  the 
speaker  is  unaware  of  them.  Of  course  awkward  habits 
of  movement  will  show  themselves  whenever  a  gesture 
is  made.  Such  habits  must  be  corrected  by  systematic 
exercise,  but  not  during -the  delivery  of  a  speech.  As  a 
general  rule  it  is  not  wise  to  plan  gestures  deliberately 
and  make  them  with  conscious  attention. 

6.     "What  Should  Receive  Coxscious  Attention 

Conscious  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  audience  at 
the  second  zone  of  attention  while  the  development  of  the 
main  theme  should  occupy  the  focus.  As  we  have  inti- 
mated, accidents  of  an  external  character  or  difficulties 
with  words  and  what  not  may  distract  the  speaker  and, 
for  a  time,  dethrone  the  theme  from  its  high  place,  but 
the  crisis  should  be  met  and  the  arrangement  first  stated 
nnist  be  returned  to  as  the  norm. 

7.  Attention  to  the  Audience.  As  a  rule  this  should 
not  detract  from  the  development  of  the  theme,  but  it 


336  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

must  exist  if  the  tlieino  is  to  be  truly  developed  for  that 
particular  audience.  The  speaker  must  watch  for  ex- 
pressions and  signs  of  interest  or  inattention  on  the  part 
of  the  audience;  he  must  note  emotional  states  as  well. 
It  is  clear  that  he  must  fit  his  message  to  the  minds  before 
him.  Unless  he  attends  in  a  sort  of  secondary  way  to  the 
indications  they  display,  he  cannot  fit  in  the  message 
which  holds  his  first  attention.  Of  course  he  never  for- 
sakes his  message  or  loses  sight  of  the  goal  toward 
which  he  is  striving,  but  he  does  modify  the  manner  of 
reaching  that  goal  according  to  the  receptivity  or  resist- 
ance of  the  hearers.  Eead  once  more  the  Beecher  selec- 
tion on  page  40,  Lesson  3,  and  that  of  Garfield  on  page  33, 
and  note  how  their  courses  are  directed  with  the  emo- 
tional state  of  the  audience  in  mind.  They  must  have 
had  an  eye  to  that  audience  as  well  as  to  the  message. 
Read  also  the  Beecher  selection  on  page  216,  Lesson  12, 
and  observe  a  similar  tact  with  reference  to  the  under- 
standing rather  than  the  feeling  of  the  audience. 

The  reason  why  certain  memorized  speeches  are  so 
poor  and  sound  so  stiff  and  artificial  is  largely  this  mat- 
ter of  paying  no  attention  to  the  particular  audience. 
The  speaker  is  absorbed  primarily  in  the  elocutionary 
effect  and  secondarily  in  the  recollection  of  the  exact 
words  to  be  delivered.  Such  ''elocutionists"  deliver  as 
though  there  were  no  audience,  or  they  have  a  standard 
delivery  independent  of  any  audience  and  kept  the  same 
for  all. 

2.  Attention  to  thr.  Main  ThoiKjht.  This  brings  us 
to  the  focus  of  attention  and  we  sliall  discuss  the  distrac- 
tions which  seek  to  usurp  the  place  of  the  main  theme  as 
planned,  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker. 

Assuming  adequate  preparation,  all  the  details  of  the 
speech  have  been  thoroughly  impressed  and  they  are 
related  and  arranged  in  logical  groups.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary for  the  speaker  to  attend  to  these  details.    He  has 


ATTP^NTION  337 

his  mind  on  the  larger  divisions  of  the  plan.  They  are 
clearl}^  in  mind,  and  as  he  disposes  of  one,  the  next  occn- 
pies  the  center  of  his  thoughts.  As  each  of  these  divi- 
sions is  taken  up,  the  well-impressed  details  spring  read- 
ily into  place  at  the  proper  time. 

It  is  important  that  the  planning  be  fairly  simple. 
There  are  two  things  which  will  insure  the  correct  ad- 
justment of  attention  during  delivery,  and  both  come 
when  the  preparation  is  thorough — the  speaker  should 
be  entirely  interested  in  his  matter,  and  he  should  be 
very  familiar  with  it.  These,  with  good  planning,  are 
sure  to  bring  success. 

When  the  speech  is  not  progressing  well,  look  for 
safety  in  your  plan,  fix  the  attention  on  that  plan  and 
bring  the  next  subdivision  clearly  to  mind;  then  work 
toward  its  presentation. 

3,  Distractions.  Stray  thoughts  often  come  to  mind 
and  beguile  the  speaker  into  neglecting  his  main  task. 
The  attraction  may  be  in  the  form  of  an  impulse  to 
express  the  newly  inspired  ideas  to  the  audience  or  there 
may  simply  be  set  up  a  train  of  thought  wnich  gets  the 
center  of  attention  while  the  speech  itself  is  carried  in 
the  outer  zone  attention,  in  a  perfunctory  manner.  AVlien 
the  first  of  these  situations  arises,  the  speaker,  who  is 
using  voluntary  or  selective  attention,  must  make  up  his 
mind  whether  the  new  idea  can  be  fitted  in  with  advan- 
tage or  not.  If  a  clear  gain  is  to  be  had,  he  makes  the 
insertion;  if  not,  he  sets  it  firmly  aside  and  continues 
along  the  appointed  path.  Of  course  the  distracting 
meditation  must  be  killed  at  the  outset. 

Other  distractions,  already  mentioned,  such  as  move- 
ments in  the  audience  and  difficulties  with  words,  will  be 
met  in  the  same  manner.  The  ideal  is  to  keep  the  general 
end  or  purpose  clearly  in  mind.  Have  the  attention 
firmly  on  the  great  divisions  as  planned,  but  be  ready  to 
make  improvements  and  adjustments  according  to-  the 


338  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

exigencies  wMcli  may  arise,  using  your  ultimate  goal  as 
the  guide. 

7.       Attention  of  the  Audience 

It  is  the  problem  of  the  speaker  to  secure  the  attention 
of  his  audience  at  the  outset.  In  Lesson  4  we  explained 
methods  of  treatment  for  the  introduction  which  would 
bring  the  desired  result.  But  we  have  already  learned 
that  attention  has  a  strong  tendency  to  shift,  and  even 
if  one  does  capture  the  mind  of  the  audience  at  the  begin- 
ning, there  is  no  guarantee  that  it  will  be  held  through- 
out. We  shall  now  discuss  the  attention  of  the  hearer 
during  the  program  of  speech. 

1.  Understanding  is  the  first  requisite  of  sustained 
attention.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  our  plans  for 
speeches,  we  begin  with  general  outlines  easy  to  under- 
stand and  introduce  technical  difficulties  only  in  a  grad- 
ual manner.  A  listener  will  not  and  cannot  continue  to 
attend  to  what  he  does  not  understand.  This  is  one  of 
the  reasons  why  you  can  read  a  light  novel  through  at 
a  single  sitting  but  fidget  over  a  difficult  book  of  science. 
It  is  hard  to  give  prolonged  attention  to  difficult  matter 
and  almost  impossible  to  that  which  is  not  understood. 
The  slightest  failure  to  get  the  speaker 's  meaning,  show- 
ing on  the  face  of  the  listener,  should  be  a  signal  to 
recapture  his  attention  by  vocal  emphasis  or  a  novel 
presentation  of  something  easy  which  will  pave  the  way 
to  a  simple  treatment  of  the  hard  passage. 

2.  Interest  must  be  maintained.  If  the  audience 
ceases  to  ])e  attracted  by  the  novelty  of  ideas  or  the 
rapid  movement,  or  if  they  see  no  personal  advantage  in 
listening;  in  short,  if  your  speech  does  not  appc^al  so 
as  to  obtain  involuntary  or  voluntary  attention,  they  will 
let  their  minds  take  up  other  trains  of  thought  just  as 
thougli  you  were  not  present.     Many    ministers    Avould 


ATTENTION  ;3:39 

hv  astoiiislied  to  learn  liow  many  business  deals  were 
})lanned  diirini*'  the  ir  abstract  and  uninteresting  sermons, 
and  how  many  more  new  hats  and  dresses  were  com- 
l)letely  conceived  to  the  subdued  accompaniment  of  their 
droning. 

.1.  ISlonotony  in  the  presentation  of  a  series  of  ideas 
each  in  themselves  interesting  enough,  and  fiat  vocal 
expression,  also  kill  attention.  The  first  may  take  many 
forms,  chief  among  which  are  monotony  of  arrangement 
and  sameness  of  treatment.  The  sentences  are  all  alike 
and  there  is  no  life  and  sparkle  to  the  composition.  Vocal 
monotony  is  similar  in  its  deadly  effect  upon  the  audi- 
ence. During  delivery,  the  speaker  should  be  animated 
and  constantly  progressing  in  his  treatment.  The  ennui 
produced  by  monotony  will  show  in  the  eye,  and  in  the 
attitude  of  the  listener 's  body.  When  that  wilted  appear- 
ance is  noted,  the  speaker  must  rally  and  make  progress. 

These  three  qualities,  lack  of  meaning,  lack  of  interest, 
and  monotony,  negatively  afi'ect  the  attention  of  the 
audience.  But  there  are  other  fa-ults  which  actively  dis- 
tract the  attention  of  the  listener  and  actually  supply 
him  with  other  food  for  thought  than  the  ideas  expressed 
by  the  speaker. 

4.  Peculiarities  of  speech,  manner,  and  dress  are  dis- 
tractions which  take  the  attention  from  the  main  theme. 
AVe  know  a  college  jjrofessor  of  anatomy  who  called  the 
spinal  column  the  spinal  "colyum,"  and  his  students 
kept  waiting  for  that  word  to  pop  out  instead  of  attend- 
ing to  the  content  of  his  lectures.  Another  teacher  had 
the  habit  of  saying,  ''How  many  see?"  all  through  her 
explanations.  The  class  was  fascinated  by  this  recur- 
rent phenomenon  and  never  ''saw";  tliey  simply  heard 
the  formula  and  waited  for  its  certain  repetition.  All 
speech  peculiarities.,  dialects  and  idiosyncrasies  will  dis- 
tract the  attention  of  the  audience.  Have  a  friend  note 
your  speaking  and  tell  you  if  you  have  any  annoying 


340  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

pet  phrases,  mispronunciations,  or  otlier  noticeable  devi- 
ations from  standard  good  usage. 

Peculiar  gestures  and  mannerisms,  playing  with  ob- 
jects while  speaking,  buttoning  and  unbuttoning  the  coat, 
sipping  water,  clearing  the  throat,  and  a  thousand  other 
possible  eccentricities  may  detract  from  what  you  say. 
Search  out  any  such  habits  and  try  to  eliminate  them. 
The  attention  should  be  on  the  thought  you  are  develop- 
ing, not  on  some  intruded  peculiarity. 

Dress  also  has  its  influence.  Loud  clothes  oi'  unkempt 
clothes  will  draw  notice  and  occupy  the  mind  of  one  in 
the  audience.  An  old  lady  once  went  to  hear  an  art  critic 
deliver  a  most  interesting  address  on  the  pictures  of 
Eembrandt.  On  coming  home  she  inquired  if  the  man 
never  pressed  his  trousers.  It  was  easy  to  see  what  was 
in  her  mind  as  he  unfolded  the  wonders  of  Eembrandt 's 
genius.  A  flower  in  the  button  hole  even  may  be  too  con- 
spicuous. These  and  many  more  little  distractions  might 
be  mentioned;  we  can  sum  up  the  lesson  taught  by  all 
with  one  piece  of  advice :  Dress  well  but  inconspicuously, 
neither  exaggerate  in  attire  nor  fall  into  slovenliness. 

5.  Suggestive  ideas  often  send  the  listener  off  on  a 
tangent.  You  may  use  an  illustration  merely  as  a  means 
of  bringing  out  a  relatively  minor  point,  but  it  may  find 
fertile  soil  in  some  mind,  take  root,  and  grow  while  you 
are  proceeding  with  the  rest  of  your  address.  This 
cannot  be  helped ;  all  minds  seize  upon  thoughts  and  work 
them  out  without  attention  to  whatever  else  is  going  on. 
The  best  preventatives  of  evil  results  from  this  tendency 
are  movement  in. the  thought  of  the  speech  and  animation 
in  delivery.  The  relating  of  this  thought  to  that  and  the 
fitting  all  into  a  scheme  which  the  listener  sees  grow  as 
you  proceed,  is  the  best  means  of  keeping  his  attention 
with  you  and  your  address.  Of  course  the  voice  is  of  won- 
derful assistance,  for  emphasis  here  and  a  pause  there 


ATTENTION  341 

will  capture  the  straying  mind  and  bring  it  back  to  you 
and  your  unfolding  message. 

Add  to  all  these  possible  rivals  for  attention,  the  effect 
of  any  deficiency  of  rhetoric  or  composition.  Indeed  all 
excellence  of  expression  is  measured  by  the  degree  to 
which  it  insures  the  easy  and  attractive  transference  of 
thought.  If  sentences  are  ungrammatical  so  as  to  ob- 
scure the  meaning,  then  the  attention  will  be  lost.  The 
listener  must  stop  attending  to  the  progress  of  the 
thought  in  order  to  unravel  a  tangle  of  meaning.  Cor- 
rectness in  grammar  and  simple  attractiveness  in  style, 
are  both  means  of  keeping  the  attention  on  the  message 
rather  than  on  the  mechanism  of  expression. 

8.     Conclusion 

It  is  clear  that  during  speech  delivery  the  speaker  can- 
not very  well  examine  himself  to  determine  how  his  atten- 
tion is  disposed,  for  that  very  act  would  disturb  the 
proper  distribution  of  attention.  But  one  can  recollect 
after  a  speech  what  took  place  in  his  mind.  Possibly  such 
recollection  and  self-examination  may  point  the  way  to 
improvement  by  revealing  faults  which  threaten  to 
become  habitual. 

For  practical  purposes  we  can  sum  up  the  precautions 
which  should  be  taken. 

I.  In  general  perfect  your  vocabulary,  pronunciation, 
bodily  movements  and  grammatical  modes  of  expression 
so  that  they  are  automatic  and  spring  into  proper  action 
as  the  thought  to  be  expressed  comes  to  mind.  Only 
w^hen  some  derangement  in  this  whole  mechanism  takes 
place  during  delivery,  should  it  receive  conscious  atten- 
tion. 

II.  Be  thorough  in  your  research  and  preparation, 
cultivating  habitual  attention  until  the  whole  is  completed. 


342  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

III.  Make  your  plan  carefully  and  as  simply  as  pos- 
sible.   Then  keep  that  plan  in  the  center  of  attention. 

IV.  Also  pay  attention  at  a  lower  level  (or  zone  out 
from  the  focus)  to  the  audience  and  adapt  the  parts  of 
your  message  to  the  audience  as  it  changes  from  time  to 
time  in  receptiveness. 

A  careful  observation  of  these  four  things  will  go  a 
great  way  toward  insuring  proper  attention  on  your  part 
and  on  the  part  of  the  audience. 

Assignment  of  Work 

The  written  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  shoukl  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  vour  notebook. 


First  Day. — Read  the  lesson  through  twice.  Then  review  in  a 
thorough  manner  Lesson  4. 

Second  Day. — Observe  whenever  something  you  are  doing  grows 
wearisome.  Make  careful  note  of  the  number  of  times  you 
start  to  do  somethhig  and  stop  before  it  is  completed.  Are 
you  incapable  of  the  hard  concentration  of  the  habit  type? 
If  3^ou  are  tempted  to  turn  aside  from  something  as  you 
grow  weary  of  it,  stick  to  it  simply  as  a  test  of  character. 
Remember  that  you  must  get  the  habit  of  concentration  if 
you  are  ever  to  get  at  -the  bottom  of  anvthing  and  do  it 
well. 

Third  Day. — On  this  or  some  substituted  day,  attend  a  sermon, 
lecture  or  other  extended  address  and  note  when  the  theme 
grows  uninteresting  or  when  your  attention  wanders.  Can 
you  put  your  finger  on  the  reason  for  each  lapse  ?  Was  the 
cause  included  in  those  enumerated  in  this  lesson,  or  was 
there  some  other  cause?  (Of  course  this  very  task  tends  to 
divide  your  attention,  but  if  you  honestly  attend  to  the 
speaker  and  do  not  reflect  on  the  loss  of  attention  until  it 
actually  takes  place,  the  evil  will  be  reduced.)  Write  out 
your  observations. 

Fourth  Day. — At  another  speech,  observe  the  audience  and 
speaker.  Do  not  attend  primarily  to  his  message,  but  rather 
make  your  own  observation  of  the  kind  of  attention  he 
arouses  and  holds.     See  how  he  meets  situations.     Do  .you 


ATTEXTIOX  343 

think  he  attends  to  his  audienee ?  Did  lie  make  any  mis- 
takes? AVliat  were  they?  Do  they  suggest  to  you  any  addi- 
tions to  tliip  lesson  ? 

FifiJi  Dai/. — Plan  and  deliver  orally  a  short  speeeh.  IIow  do 
you  tind  your  attention  to  the  main  line  of  argument?  Do 
you  keep  your  outline  clearly  before  you?  Have  you  any 
distracting  language  disability,  any  faults  of  gesture?  Have 
you  a  tendency  to  ramble,  overamplify.  or  pursue  suggested 
new  ideas  ? 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

Tlictsf  (jiu'stions  are  for  the  student  to  I'.sc  in  testinfr 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  J  hey 
are  suggestive  merely',  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  What  two  aspects  of  attention  are  treated  in  this  lesson  .' 
Why  is  the  second  important :' 

2.  Can  you  give  a  detinition  of  attention  ?  No  formal 
definition  is  given  in  the  lesson. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  subject  and  object  when  we  discuss 
attention?  Can  the  object  be  witliin  a  man's  own  mind,  or  must 
it  be  a  real,  external  thing? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  zones  of  attention  ?  Mliat  is  the  focus 
of  attention  ?  When  we  say  that  a  thing  is  below  the  threshold  of 
attention,  what  do  we  mean?  Could  we  just  as  properly  say, 
beyond  the  farthest  zone? 

5.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  voluntary  attention? 
What  are  the  characteristics  of  involuntary  attention?  What 
are  the  characteristics  of  habitual  attention  ? 

6.  Which  of  these  is  most  desirable  during  the  preparation 
of  speech  material  ?    Why  ? 

7.  Which  is  the  most  desirable  during  delivery?     Why? 

8.  Does  interest  play  any  part  in  attention?  What  inter- 
ests start  the  speaker  on  his  task  of  research  and  renew  his 
application  whenever  habitual  attention  breaks? 

9.  What  operations  should  receive  no  conscious  attention 
during  delivery  ?  How  do  they  manage  to  go  on  satisfactorily 
without  attention  ?  Look  at  the  lesson  on  action  and  see  if  certain 
actions  become  automatic. 

10.  What  kind  of  attention  should  the  audience  receive? 
What  particular  things  connected  with  the  audience  are  espe- 
cially worthy  of  this  sort  of  attention?  Do  those  things  always 
stay  at  the-  same  level  of  attention — or  in  the  same  zone  of 
attention  ? 

11.  What  is  the  life  history  of  a  distraction?  Take  first  an 
important  distraction  and  then  an  unimportant  one. 

12.  How  does  the  interest  of  the  audience  affect  its  attention? 

13.  What  effect  has  monotony  on  the  attention  paid  by  the 
audience?  What  things  in  speech  delivery  are  prone  to 
monotony  ? 

14.  Why  should  a  speaker  avoid  all  peculiarities  of  manner, 
speech  and  dress?  Do  you  remember  any  speaker  who  had  a 
shortcoming  of  this  sort  which  caused  disaster? 

15.  How  can  a  speaker  prevent  .'^ome  of  his  own  good  ideas 
from  starting  the  audience  oif  on  a  little  line  of  meditation,  tc 
the  exclusion  of  the  speaker's  address? 

344 


LESSON  19 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH 

The  seed  from  which  every  speech  springs,  is  the  jmr- 
pose  to  be  accomplished  by  it.  This  seed,  taking  root  in 
the  heart  of  the  speaker,  germinates  in  his  search  for 
material,  puts  forth  leaves  in  his  planning,  and  bears 
frnit  in  the  delivery.  And  each  of  these  stages  is  deter- 
mined in  its  character  by  the  nature  of  the  original  seed. 
The  purpose  starts  all  the  mechanism  of  speech-making 
and  dominates  at  every  step.  The  more  clearly  defined 
the  purpose,  the  more  directly  the  speaker  sets  about  his 
several  tasks.  To  change  the  fig-ure,  we  may  say  that 
the  purpose  sets  the  mark  and  aims  the  gim.  If  the 
speaker  follows  the  guidance  of  his  purpose  successfully, 
he  hits  the  mark.  Though  we  have  left  our  discussion  of 
the  purpose  of  the  speech  and  its  ramifying  influences 
until  this  late  lesson,  we  have  assumed  from  the  very 
})eginning  that  a  purpose  exists  for  every  speech.  Its 
existence  was  implied  in  our  treatment  of  organization, 
planning,  and  dividing  the  speech,  and  in  our  exposition 
of  the  treatment  of  various  details. 

1.     Nature  of  Purpose 

Purposes  are  as  many  and  various  as  the  differing 
characters  of  men  multiplied  by  the  millions  of  situations 
which  confront  them  in  kaleidoscopic  rotation,  and  mul- 
tiplied again  by  the  numberless  combinations  of  minds 
and  temperaments  in  the  audiences.  Assume  that  a  man 
has  for  one  of  his  purposes,  the  selling  of  lawn  mowers; 

845 


346  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

that  purpose  and  the  carrying  it  to  a  successful  issue 
will  vary  with  each  customer.  Furthermore,  the  means 
which  he  will  use  in  a  certain  case  will  not  be  the  same 
as  the  means  he  will  use  to  carry  out  another  purpose, 
such  as  the  winning  of  a  bride  to  share  with  him  the 
profits  of  his  numerous  sales.  Each  purpose  is  individ- 
ual and  each  speech  brings  with  it  special  problems  con- 
nected with  the  accomplishment  of  the  end  in  view. 

The  old  rhetoricians  endeavored  to  classify  the  ends 
or  purposes  of  speeches.  They  tried  to  establish  certain 
kinds  of  ends  which  would  embrace  all  particular  cases. 
Aristotle  (B.  C.  384-322)  divided  all  speeches  into  (1) 
the  demonstrative,  which  had  for  their  end  the  simple 
presentation  of  things  for  the  pleasure  or  displeasure 
naturally  associated  with  them;  (2)  the  judicial,  which 
sought  to  establish  justice  through  the  proof  of  the  truth 
about  something  which  took  place  in  the  past;  and  (3) 
the  deliberative,  which  undertook  to  move  the  hearers  to 
a  wise  future  action.  This  is  a  fair  classification  of  the 
occasions  or  subjects  of  a  Greek  orator's  speeches,  but  it 
otfers  little  suggestion  concerning  differences  in  method 
in  attaining  the  various  ends. 

Modern  writers  have  turned  to  psychology  for  a  basis 
of  classifying  the  general  purposes  of  a  speaker.  One  of 
the  early  English  arrangements  of  this  sort  is  that  of 
Campbell  (1757)  which  has  been  widely  copied  and  poorly 
imitated.  He  said,  "All  the  ends  of  speaking  are  re- 
ducible to  four ;  every  speech  being  intended  to  enlighten 
the  understanding,  to  please  the  imagination,  to  move 
the  passions,  or  to  influence  the  will." 

But  these  classifications  overlook  the  complex  nature 
of  a  speech  which  would  be  of  service  to  accomplish  any 
purpose  in  practical  life.  For  instance,  it  is  difficult  to 
move  the  will  unless  the  imagination,  feelings,  and  under- 
standing have  all  been  set  into  operation  also,  and  it  is 
hard  to  say  when  a  simple  appeal  to  the  imagination  may 


PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH  347 

not  work  itself  out  in  action.  Indeed  a  speech  contains 
an  almost  infinite  number  of  images,  coi\cex)ts,  and  ap- 
peals of  various  sorts.  Many  a  speech  is  a  complex  of 
pleasure-giving-  pictures,  rigorous  jjroof,  and  lively 
appeal  to  action.  The  mixture  of  all  these  serves  to 
bring  about  the  purpose  of  the  speaker.  AVe  might  well 
reduce  such  elements,  to  be  found  in  various  propositions 
in  all  speeches,  to  certain  psychological  units,  such  as 
images,  concepts,  judgments,  and  reasoning  processes 
on  the  cognitive  side,  and  feelings,  emotions,  and  senti- 
ments on  the  affective  side,  with  certain  formulas  for 
their  application  to  secure  action.  But  the  end  or  pur- 
pose of  a  real  speech  is  not  to  present  just  one  of  these 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  others.  The  purpose  may  be  any 
practical  thing  from  the  announcement  of  the  coming  and 
going  of  the  trains  to  the  securing  of  a  million  dollars 
for  charity.  Furthermore,  the  end  might  be  the  artistic 
one  of  representing  a  series  of  images,  ideas,  and  ideals 
for  the  emotions  they  would  successively  arouse. 

2.     Means  Toward  the  End 

To  further  his  particular  end,  the  speaker  stirs  in  the 
minds  of  those  before  him  the  elements  previously  men- 
tioned, in  desirable  combinations.  He  must,  in  each  case, 
determine  just  what  will  influence  his  special  audience  in 
a  particular  way.  He  knows  that  a  proposition  cannot 
be  proved  by  argument  before  the  audience  is  in  posses- 
sion of  the  facts  involved.  He  makes  up  his  mind  whether 
or  not  his  peculiar  audience  is  acquainted  with  those 
facts.  In  one  event  he  presents  them  vividly,  in  the  other 
he  need  hardly  refer  to  them,  though  in  both  instances 
his  purpose  is  the  same.  An  inductive  argaiment  is  neces- 
sary only  when  a  given  audience  does  not  accept  the  gen- 
eral law  to  which  the  speaker  wants  to  refer.  If  such 
a  generalization  be  accepted,  it  need  only  be  expressed; 


348  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

there  is  no  necessity  for  establishment.  People  already 
inclined  in  a  certain  impulse  direction  need  only  the  men- 
tion of  an  act  in  harmony  with  it  to  set  them  in  motion ; 
while  others  not  so  favorably  disposed  at  the  outset,  must 
be  impressed  with  the  desirability  of  the  act  proposed. 
The  purpose,  then,  is  always  specific  and  the  speaker  in 
each  instance  selects  his  elements  or  ingredients  in  a 
manner  likely  to  be  most  effective  with  a  particular  audi- 
ence taking  a  particular,  initial  attitude.  It  is  clear  now, 
no  doubt,  wdiy  we  delayed  our  detailed  treatment  of  the 
purpose  of  the  speech  until  after  the  presentation  of 
images,  concepts,  arguments,  and  the  springs  to  action. 
All  must  be  understood  if  they  are  to  subserve  the  pur- 
pose of  the  speaker.  He  must,  to  use  Hamlet's  figure, 
play  upon  his  audience  as  a  nmsician  works  the  stops  of 
his  instrument.  He  calls  up  images,  feelings,  impulses — 
all  in  the  order  best  calculated  to  make  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  purpose  easy  and  natural. 

3.     Formulation  of  the  Purpose 

One  should  always  clearly  formulate  his  purpose.  He 
should  be  sure  of  his  aim.  It  is  even  well  to  write  it  down 
so  as  to  be  more  definite.  Thus  one  might  head  his 
plan: — ''To  persuade  the  school  board  to  introduce  do- 
mestic science  into  the  course  of  study,"  or  "To  arouse 
sentiment  in  favor  of  single  tax  among  the  farmers  of 
this  county,"  or  "To  inform  the  clerks  of  my  department 
about  the  workings  of  a  new  filing  system."  These  are 
typical  of  the  thousands  of  specific  purposes  which  must 
be  accomplished  through  speech. 

Having  fixed  on  the  exact  nature  of  his  purpose,  the 
speaker  may  then  proceed  to  determine  just  what  ele- 
ments will  influence  tliose  before  him  in  the  desired 
manner.  He  must  make  his  choice  g^iided  by  two  consid- 
erations:    (1)   He  must  C()m])ass  his  subject  as  a  com- 


PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH  340 

l>leted  composition  in  itself,  yet  (2)  lie  must  modify  his 
treatment  to  meet  the  peculiarities  of  those  to  be  im- 
])i'essed.  The  subject  makes  its  demands  as  an  abstract 
thing,  apart  from  any  individual,  and  the  audience  makes 
its  demands  because  of  its  limitations  of  ujiderstanding 
and  feeling.  Just  how  does  the  speaker  satisfy  both 
demands,  how  does  he  discharge  his  duty  to  his  message 
content  and  his  duty  to  his  hearers  ?  Only  by  harmoniz- 
ing the  two  can  he  hope  to  accomplish  his  purpose. 

It  is  difficult  to  find  speeches  short  enough  to  quote 
entirely  in  these  lessons,  and  it  is  not  well  to  take  only 
an  excerpt  to  illustrate  the  matter  at  hand.  The  fol- 
lowing address  by  Wendell  Phillips,  delivered  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Boston  for  the  purpose  of  urging  them  to  preserve 
the  Old  South  Church,  may  serve. 

A  liundred  years  ago  our  fathers  announced  this  sublime  dec- 
laration, "God  intended  all  men  to  be  free  and  equal."  Today, 
with  a  territory  that  joins  ocean  to  ocean,  with  her  millions  of 
people,  with  two  warsljehind  her,  with  the  sublime  achievement 
of  having  grappled  with  the  fearful  disease  that  threatened  her 
life,  and  broken  four  millions  of  fetters,  the  great  Republic 
launches  into  the  second  century  of  her  existence. 

With  how  much  pride,  with  what  a  thrill,  with  what  tender 
and  loyal  reverence,  may  we  not  cherish  the  spot  where  this 
marvellous  enterprise  began — the  roof  under  which  its  first 
councils  were  held,  where  the  air  still  trembles  and  burns  with 
Otis  and  Sam  Adams.  Except  the  Holy  City,  is  there  any  more 
memorable  or  sacred  place  on  the  face  of  the  earth?  *  *  * 
Athens  has  her  Acropolis,  but  the  Greek  can  point  to  no  such 
results.  London  has  her  Palace,  and  her  Tower,  and  her  St. 
Stephen's  Chapel,  but  the  human  race  owes  her  no  such  mem- 
ories. France  has  spots  marked  by  the  sublimest  devotion,  but 
the  IMecca  of  the  man  who  believes  and  hopes  for  the  human 
race,  is  not  to  Paris;  it  is  to  the  seaboard  cities  of  the  great  Re- 
public. And  when  the  flag  was  assailed,  and  the  regiments 
marched  through  the  streets,  what  walls  did  they  salute  as  the 
regimental  flags  floated  by  to  Gettysburg  and  Antietam?  These! 
Our  bovs  carried  down  to  the  battlefields  the  memorv  of  State 
Street,  of  Faneuil  Hall,  of  the  Old  South  Church. 

We  had  signal  prominence  in  the  still  earlier  days  of  the 
Revolution.     It  was  on  the  men  of  Boston   that  Lord   North 


350  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

visited  his  revenge.  It  was  oiir  port  that  was  to  l)e  shut  and  its 
commerce  annihilated.  It  was  Sam  Adams  and  John  Hancock 
who  enjoyed  the  everlasting  reward  of  being  the  onl}'  names 
excepted  from  the  royal  proclamation  of  forgiveness.  Here,  Sam 
Adams,  the  ablest  and  ripest  statesman  God  gave  to  the  epoch, 
forecast  those  measures  which  welded  the  thirteen  colonies  into 
one  thunderbolt,  and  launched  it  at  George  the  Third.  Here, 
Otis  magnetized  every  boy  into  a  desperate  rebel. 

The  saving  of  this  landmark  is  the  best  monument  you  can 
erect  to  the  men  of  the  Kevolution.  You  spend  thousands  of 
dollars  to  put  up  a  statue  to  some  old  hero.  You  want  your  sons 
to  gaze  upon  the  nearest  approach  to  the  features  of  those  "dead 
but  sceptered  sovereigns  Avho  still  rule  our  spirits  from  their 
urns."  But  what  is  a  statue  of  Cicero  compared  to  standing 
where  your  voice  echoes  from  pillar  and  wall  that  actually  heard 
his  philippics?  Scholars  have  grown  old  and  blind,  striving  to 
put  their  hands  on  the  very  spot  where  bold  men  spoke  or  brave 
men  died.  Shall  w^e  tear  in  pieces  the  roof  that  actually  trembled 
to  the  words  that  made  us  a  nation  ?  It  is  impossible  not  to 
believe,  if  the  spirits  above  us  are  permitted  to  know  what  passes 
in  this  terrestrial  sphere,  that  Adams,  and  "Warren,  and  Otis  are 
today  bending  over  us  asking  that  the  scene  of  their  immortal 
labors  shall  not  be  desecrated,  or  blotted  from  the  sight  of  men. 

Consecrate  it  again  to  the  memory  and  worship  of  a  grateful 
people !  Napoleon  turned  aside  his  Simplon  Road  to  save  a  tree 
Caesar  had  once  mentioned.  Won't  you  turn  a  street,  or  spare 
a  quarter  of  an  acre,  to  remind,  boys  what  sort  of  men  their 
fathers  were?  Think  twice  before  you  touch  these  walls.  We  are 
the  world's  trustees.  The  Old  South  no  more  belongs  to  us 
than  Luther's  or  Hampden's  or  Brutus 's  name  does  to  Germany, 
England,  or  Rome.  Each  and  all  are  held  in  trust  as  torchlight 
guides  and  inspiration  for  any  man  struggling  for  justice  and 
ready  to  die  for  truth.  The  worship  of  great  memories,  noble 
deeds,  sacred  places,  is  one  of  the  keenest  ripeners  of  such  ele- 
ments. Seize  greedily  on  every  chance  to  save  and  emphasize 
them. 

Without  going-  into  the  minute  details,  we  can  indicate 
the  selection  of  material  in  this  case.  In  the  first  para- 
graph Phillips  makes  a  general  statement  whicli  arouses 
a  sentiment  of  national  pride.  No  elaboration  or  ox])Ia^ 
nation  is  necessary  to  that  American  audience  In  llie 
second  paragraph  he  says  that  we  may  well  cliciisli  the 


PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH  351 

spot  where  it  all  had  its  beginning.  Then  he  arouses 
emotions  of  love  and  pride  by  recalling  particular  men — 
( )tis  and  Adams — and  by  comparing  Old  South  with  other 
famous  places  of  national  pride  the  w^orld  over.  The 
last  part  of  the  second  paragraph  and  all  of  the  third  re- 
call occurrences  in  the  Old  South  which  make  it  dear  to  the 
town  people.  Notice  that  information  is  not  elaborate 
and  references  are  by  a  Avord  or  two  only.  If  the  speech 
had  been  made  in  San  Francisco,  to  collect  funds  to  send 

to  Boston,  no  doubt  Phillips  would  have  used  vivid 
images  of  all  these  events  instead  of  merely  referring 
to  them  as  familiar  things. 

So  far  there  is  no  argument,  all  is  image-raising  and 
the  arousing  of  sentiments  and  emotions  by  means  of 
reference.  But  in  the  fourth  paragraph,  arguments  are 
advanced.  It  is  reasoned  that  the  money  spent  to  pre- 
serve this  landmark  will  give  a  better  return  than  the 
amount  to  erect  a  monument.  Furthermore,  it  is  con- 
tended that  the  permanent  nature  of  the  pla-ce  w^ill  insure 
against  future  uncertainty  concerning  the  spot  in  ques- 
tion. The  paragraph  concludes  with  an  emotional  refer- 
ence to  Otis,  Warren,  and  Adams.  The  last  paragraph 
is  an  almost  perfect  peroration  of  the  poetic  enlarge- 
ment type.     (See  Lesson  6,  pages  92  to  97.) 

As  one  of  the  exercises,. we  shall  assign  to  the  student 
tlie  preparation  of  this  speech,  to  be  delivered  to  a  culti- 
vated audience  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  the  same  date  the 
original  was  delivered — June  4,  ]876.  The  object  is  the 
securing  of  funds  to  preserve  Old  South  Church.  How 
will  the  student  fit  the  essentials  of  the  message  to  the 
understanding  and  feelings  of  this  different  audience? 

/Sometimes  the  purpose  of  a  speech  is  not  to  stimulate 
a  definite  action,  but  merely  to  use  such  images  and  con- 
cepts as  will  arouse  a  general  sentiment  of  a  given  sort 
which  will  abide  and  become  part  of  the  character  of  the 


352  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

listener.  Maii}^  sermons  and  ethical  addresses  have  this 
sort  of  purpose.  The  following  speech  by  Lincoln  is  a 
fair  example. 

Address  of  August  31,  1864,  to  the  148th  Ohio 

Soldiers  of  the  148th  Ohio: 

I  am  most  happy  to  meet  you  on  this  occasion.  I  understand 
that  it  has  heen  your  honorable  privilege  to  stand,  for  a  brief 
period,  in  the  defence  of  your  country,  and  that  now  you  are  on 
the  way  to  your  homes.  I  congratulate  j^ou  and  those  who  are 
waiting  to  bid  you  welcome  home  from  the  war;  and  permit  me 
in  the  name  of  the  people  to  thank  you  for  the  part  you  have 
taken  in  this  struggle  for  the  life  of  the  nation.  You  are  sol- 
diers of  the  republic,  everywhere  honored  and  respected.  When- 
ever I  appear  before  a  body  of  soldiers,  I  feel  tempted  to  talk 
to  them  of  the  nature  of  the  struggle  in  which  we  are  engaged. 
I  look  upon  it  as  an  attempt,  on  the  one  hand,  to  overwhelm 
and  destroy  the  national  existence ;  while  on  our  part,  we  are 
striving  to  maintain  the  government  and  institutions  of  our 
fathers,  to  enjoy  them  ourselves,  and  transmit  them  to  our  chil- 
dren and  to  our  children 's  children  forever. 

To  do  this,  the  constitutional  administration  of  our  govern- 
ment must  be  sustained,  and  I  beg  of  you  not  to  allow  your  minds 
or  your  hearts  to  be  diverted  from  the  support  of  all  necessary 
measures  for  that  purpose,  by  any  miserable  picayune  arguments 
addressed  to  your  pockets,  or  inflammatory  appeals  made  to  your 
passions  and  your  prejudices. 

It  is  vain  and  foolish  to  arraign  this  man  or  that  for  the  part 
he  has  taken  or  has  not  taken,  and  to  hold  the  government 
responsible  for  his  acts.  In  no  administration  can  there  be 
perfect  equality  of  action  and  uniform  satisfaction  rendered 
by  all. 

But  this  government  must  be  preserved  in  spite  of  the  acts 
of  any  man  or  set  of  men.  It  is  worthy  of  your  every  effort. 
Nowhere  in  the  world  is  presented  a  government  of  so  much 
liberty  and  equality.  To  the  humblest  aiul  poorest  among  us 
are  held  out  the  highest  privih'ges  and  positions.  The  present 
moment  finds  me  at  the  White  House,  yet  there  is  as  good  a 
chance  for  your  children  as  there  was  for  m.y  father '.s. 

Again  I  admonish  you  not  to  be  turned  from  your  stern  pur- 
pose of  defending  our  beloved  country  and  its  free  institutions 
by  any  arguments  urged  by  ambitious  and  designing  men,  but 
to  stand  fast  for  the  Union  and  tlie  old  flag. 

Soldiers,  I  bid  you  God-speed  1o  your  homes. 


PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH  •         353 

Here  the  idea  that  the  life  of  the  nation  is  greater  tlian 
that  of  the  individual  is  developed  so  as  to  arouse  a 
strong-  sentiment  of  loyalty  to  that  idea.  Considering 
the  time  of  the  address  and  the  men  in  the  audience,  it 
is  difficult  to  conceive  of  a  better  selection  of  material  to 
foster  a  strong  and  constant  sentiment  of  loyalty  and 
service  than  this.  The  Gettysburg  Speech  is  like  this 
one  in  general  character.  It  simply  holds  up  the  ideal 
of  dedication  and  consecration  to  the  great  work  of 
perpetuating  the  union. 

In  deliberative  bodies,  in  law  courts,  and  in  public 
debate,  it  is  sometimes  -the  purpose  of  the  speaker  merely 
to  make  a  vague  impression  of  a  certain  sort  in  order 
to  get  an  opponent  to  go  definitely  on  record  with  views 
which  may  be  attacked  after  they  are  fully  expressed. 
Note  the  following  address  by  Patrick  Henry,  delivered 
before  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  Virginia,  June 
4,  1788.  The  Constitution  had  been  drawn  up  in  Phila- 
delphia and  was  being  presented  to  the  various  states 
for  adoption.  The  preamble  and  the  first  two  sections 
of  the  first  article  were  up  for  adoption.  Henry  did 
not  want  them  accepted,  yet  he  preferred  to  attack  after 
those  favoring  the  Constitution  had  exposed  the  strength 
of  their  arguments.  Furthermore,  he  wanted  to  register 
a  general  protest  against  the  power  used  by  the  Phila- 
delphia delegates  and  to  create  a  feeling  of  distrust  and 
fear  of  impending  disaster. 

Mr.  Chainium : 

The  i>nblic  mind,  as  well  a.s  my  own,  is  extremely  mieasy  at 
the  proposed  ehaiige  in  the  government.  Give  me  leave  to  form 
one  of  tlie  nnmlx^r  of  those  who  wish  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  this  perilous  and  imeasy  situaticm,  and  why  we  are  brought 
hitlier  to  decide  on  this  great  naticmal  question.  I  consider  my- 
self as  tlie  servant  of  the  people  of  this  commonwealth,  as  a 
sentinel  over  their  rights,  liberty,  and  happiness.  I  represent 
their  feelings  when  I  say  that  thev  are  exceedingly  uneasy,  being 
brought  from  that  state  of  full  security  which  they  enjoy,  to  the 


354  ^       EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

present  delusive  appearance  of  things.  Before  the  meeting  of 
the  late  federal  convention  at  Philadelphia,  a  general  peace  and 
a  universal  tranquility  prevailed  in  this  country,  and  the  minds 
of  our  citizens  were  at  perfect  repose ;  but  since  that  period, 
they  are  exceedingly  uneasy  and  disquieted. 

When  I  wished  for  an  appointment  to  this  convention,  my 
mind  was  extremely  agitated  over  the  situation  of  public  affairs. 
I  conceive  the  republic  to  be  in  extreme  danger.  If  our  situa- 
tion be  thus  uneasy,  whence  has  arisen  this  fearful  jeopardy? 
It  arises  from  this  fatal  s.ystem ;  it  arises  from  a  proposal  to 
change  our  government — a  proposal  that  goes  to  an  utter  anni- 
hilation of  the  most  solemn  engagements  of  the  states — a  pro- 
posal to  establish  nine  states  into  a  confederacy  to  the  eventful 
exclusion  of  four  states.  It  goes  to  the  annihilation  of  those 
solemn  treaties  which  we  have  formed  with  foreign  nations.  The 
present  circumstances  of  France,  the  good  offices  rendered  us 
by  that  kingdom,  require  our  most  faithful  and  most  punctual 
adherence  to  our  treaty  with  her.  We  are  in  alliance  with  the 
Spaniards,  the  Dutch,  the  Prussians;  these  treaties  bind  us  as 
thirteen  states,  confederated  together.  Yet  here  is  a  proposal 
to  sever  that  confederacy.  Is  it  possible  that  we  shall  abandon 
all  oiir  treaties  and  national  engagements?  And  for  what? 
*  *  *  ^-^s  our  civil  policy  or  public  .justice  endangered  or 
sapped?  Was  the  real  existence  of  the  country  threatened,  or 
was  this  preceded  by  a  mournful  procession  of  events? 

This  proposal  of  altering  our  federal  government  is  of  a  most 
alarming  nature ;  make  the  best  of  this  new  government— say 
it  is  composed  of  anything  but  inspiration — you  ought  to  be 
extremely  cautious,  watchful,  jealous  of  your  liberty  ;  for  instead 
of  securing  your  rights,  you  may  lose  them  forever.  If  this  new 
government  will  not  come  up  to  the  expectations  of  the  people, 
and  they  should  be  disappointed,  their  liberty  will  be  lost  and 
tyranny  must  and  will  arise.  I  repeat  it  again,  and  I  beg  gentle- 
men to  consider,  that  a  wrong  step  made  now,  will  plunge  us 
into  misery,  and  our  republic  will  be  lost. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  this  convention  to  have  a  faithful  his- 
torical detail  of  the  facts  that  i)receded  the  session  of  the  fed- 
eral convention,  and  the  reasons  that  actuated  its  members  in 
proposing  an  entire  alteration  of  government — and  to  demon- 
strate the  dangers  that  awaited  us.  If  they  were  of  such  awful 
magnitude  as  to  warrant  a  pi-oposal  so  extremely  perilous  as  this, 
I  must  assert  that  lliis  coinciitioii  lias  an  absolute  right  to  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  cvci'.n-  circiiiustaiice  relative  to  this  great  evcni. 
And  here  I  would  make  this  iiupiiry  of  those  worthy  cliaracters 
who  composed  a  part  of  the  late  federal  convention.  I  am  snw 
that  they  were  impressed  \\ifh  the  necessity  of  forming  a  great 


PrRPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH  355 

consolidated  government,  instead  of  a  confederacy.  That  this 
is  a  consolidated  government  is  demonstrably  clear;  and  the 
danger  of  such  a  government  i.s,  to  my  mind,  very  striking.  I 
have  the  highest  veneration  for  those  gentlemen  ;  but,  sir,  give 
l)e  leave  to  demand  what  right  had  they  to  say  "We,  the  People," 
instead  of  We,  the  States?  jMy  political  curiosity,  exclusive  of 
my  anxious  solicitude  for  the  public  welfare,  leads  me  to  ask, 
wlio  authorized  them  to  speak  the  language  of,  "AVe,  the  Peo- 
ple," instead  of  We,  the  States?  States  are  the  characteristics 
and  the  soul  of  a  confederation.  If  the  states  be  not  the  agents 
of  this  compact,  it  must  be  one  great,  consolidated  national  gov- 
ernment of  the  people  of  all  the  states.  I  have  the  highest  respect 
for  those  gentlemen  who  formed  the  convention ;  and  were  some 
of  them  not  here,  I  would  express  some  testimonial  of  esteem 
for  them.  America  had,  on  a  former  occasion,  put  the  utmost 
confidence  in  them ;  a  confidence  which  was  well  placed ;  and  I 
am  sure,  sir,  I  would  give  up  anything  to  them ;  I  woulcl  cheer- 
fully confide  in  them  as  my  representatives.  But,  sir,  on  this 
great  occasion,  I  would  demand  the  cause  of  their  conduct. 
Even  from  that  illustrious  man,  who  saved  us  by  his  valor,  I 
would  have  a  reason  for  his  conduct ;  indeed  that  liberty  Avhich 
he  gave  us  by  his  valor,  tells  me  to  ask  this  reason ;  and  I  am 
sure,  were  he  here,  he  would  give  us  that  reason ;  but  there  are 
other  gentlemen  here  who  can  give  us  that  information.  The 
people  gave  them  no  power  to  use  their  name.  That  they 
exceeded  their  power  is  perfectly  clear. 

It  is  not  mere  curiosity  that  actuates  me ;  I  want  to  know  the 
real,  actual,  existing  danger  which  should  lead  us  to  take  those 
steps  so  disastrous,  in  my  conception.  Disorders  have  arisen  in 
other  parts  of  America,  but  here,  sir,  no  dangers,  no  insurrec- 
tions nor  tumults  have  happened ;  everything  has  been  tranquil. 
But  notwithstanding  this,  we  are  wandering  on  the  great  ocean 
of  human  affairs.  I  see  no  landmark  to  guide  us.  We  are  run- 
ning we  know  not  whither.  Difference  in  opinion  has  gone  to  a 
degree  of  inflammatory  resentment,  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  which  has  been  occasioned  by  this  perilous  innovation. 
The  federal  convention  ought  to  have  amended  the  old  system ; 
for  this  purpose,  they  were  solely  delegated :  the  object  of  their 
mission  extended  to  no  other  consideration.  You  must  therefore 
forgive  the  solicitation  of  one  unworthy  member,  to  know  what 
danger  could  have  arisen  under  the  present  confederation,  and 
what  are  the  causes  of  this  proposal  to  change  our  government. 

Make  a  careful  analysis  of  this  speech  as  a  wiiole  and 
by  para,!OTaphs  Avith  special  reference  to  the  purpose  to 
be  accomplished  by  each  part. 


356  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

4.     Method  of  Procedure 

Having  determined  tlie  purpose  of  the  speech,  the 
speaker  should  first  arrange  the  material  in  a  manner 
that  will  lead  logically  and  inevitably  to  the  desired  end. 
The  best  example  of  this  logical  arrangement,  which  is 
impersonal  and  sure  in  its  forward  march,  is  the  mathe- 
matical demonstration.  In  speech  making,  the  academic 
debate  comes  nearest.  In  practical  life,  the  case  before 
a  judge  of  a  higher  court  is  the  best  example.  In  most 
speeches,  the  strictly  logical  selection  must  be  discarded 
later  and  modified  to  suit  a  real  audience,  w^hich  is  not 
entirely  logical. 

Having  made  this  selection  and  arrangement  of  mate- 
rial,  then  determine,  from  the  standpoint  of  understand- 
ing, the  acceptability  to  the  particular  audience.  Which 
of  the  various  ideas  are  familiar  to  them?  Such  can  be 
mentioned  and  put  into  the  proper  places,  but  need  no 
thorough  treatment.  Familiar  images  can  be  referred 
to  by  name  merely  or  indicated  by  striking  epithet  (see 
Lesson  10  and  particularly  page  181).  The  same  is  true 
of  concepts  and  the  conclusions  of  arguments.  Where 
the  images,  concepts,  and  arguments  are  new  to  the 
audience,  they  must  be  planned  for  full  treatment.  (See 
Lessons  9  to  15.) 

We  have  intimated  that  each  of  the  intellectual  ele- 
ments carries  with  it  possibilities  of  feeling  or  emotion. 
But  an  image  which  will  arouse  one  feeling  in  one  person 
will  arouse  quite  a  different  one  in  another.  The  heart- 
rending situation  in  a  melodrama  which  has  the  shop 
girl  worked  up  to  a  state  of  tearful  anxiety  and  sympathy, 
leaves  the  young  woman  just  out  of  college  cold  and 
critical  of  its  good  taste.  A  surgeon  calmly  lays  open 
the  abdomen  of  his  appendix  patient,  while  a  relative, 
foolishly  standing  near,  faints.  To  speak  of  profit  before 
a  board  of  directors  carries  with  it  no  feeling  of  injustice 


PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH  357 

(fi-  outrage,  but  the  same  notion  expressed  to  a  socialist 
;( rouses  a  whole  mass  of  resentment  against  the  exploita- 
tion of  labor  and  social  inequality.  ^^We  need  not  pass 
on  the  question  which  is  right  in  these  various  cases;  we 
merely  know  that  there  are  differences  in  feeling  pos- 
sibilities because  of  class,  training,  and  custom,  and  also 
sex  and  age.  AVell,  the  speaker  seeking  to  arouse  certain 
feelings  in  consonance  with  his  purpose  must  look  at  his 
means  and  determine  how  it  will  affect  his  particular 
audience.  Of  course  he  must  have  some  notion  of  the 
nature  of  those  before  him. 

Just  as  their  intellectual  shortcomings  dictate  full 
treatment  of  some  things,  building  from  the  bottom  up, 
so  also  their  peculiar  prejudices  and  level  of  emotional 
refinement  will  necessitate  tactful  selection  and  treatment 
of  others.  Look  over  your  material  and  see  what  will 
be  readily  accepted  from  the  standpoint  of  favor  or 
emotion.  Fix  on  the  best  mode  of  presenting  it  so  as  to 
make  the  most  of  that  predisposition.  Also  designate 
those  parts  which  will  run  counter  to  the  feelings  of  the 
audience.  Some  will  have  to  be  discarded.  If  that  is 
possible  without  damaging  your  case,  drop  the  unpalat- 
able matter.  If  it  must  be  preserved,  devise  the  most 
tactful  way  of  making  it  tolerable.  Many  details  will 
often  have  to  be  sacrificed  or  modified.  Be  cheerful  in 
doing  this ;  you  will  never  succeed  by  forcing  things  down 
unwilling  throats.  Eemember  that  the  accomplishment 
of  your  general  purpose  is  more  important  than  any 
detail. 

A  good  plan  is  to  enumerate  the  salient  features  or 
steps  in  your  speech  in  one  column,  then  in  the  other, 
mark  intellectual  shortcomings  or  advantages  held  by 
the  audience,  and  in  the  third,  emotional  response  prob- 
abilities. This  will  be  your  battle  plan  of  sacrifices  and 
modifications. 


358  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Naturally,  when  on  the  floor  you  may  sense  situations 
quite  different  from  what  you  anticipated  and  you  may 
have  to  make  sudden  and  unexpected  modifications  in 
your  treatment.  The  rule  to  follow  is  this :;-  Keep  the 
purpose  unchanged  before  you;  readily  sacrifice  minor 
details  and  make  concessions  to  temporary  feelings; 
when  necessary  slur  over  fairly  essential  parts;  finally, 
if  no  headway  is  possible,  it  is  better  to  stop  trying  than 
to  antagonize  the  audience  permanently.  Sometimes  it  is 
wiser  to  let  your  purpose  Avait  for  a  more  favorable 
occasion  than  to  drive  against  a  hopelessly  hostile 
audience.  Yet  it  is  wonderful  how  much  can  be  accom- 
plished bj^  a  speaker  who  makes  his  concessions  wisely, 
who  respects  the  feelings  of  those  before  him  and  keeps 
his  own  temper. 

There  is  no  rule  to  guide  the  speaker  in  this  matter  of 
adjustment  to  temperament,  and  men  cannot  be  classified 
according  to  feelings.  Aristotle  sought  to  aid  the  orator 
by  giving  the  characteristics  of  young  men  so  that  one 
addressing  a  group  of  them  might  know  what  to  expect. 
For  instance,  he  said  that  young  men  are  violent  in 
desires,  quick  to  action,  easily  moved,  easily  deceived, 
generous,  lovers  of  honor  rather  than  riches,  merciful, 
valiant,  etc.,  while  old  men  are  slow  to  action,  slow  of 
decision,  without  violent  desires,  lovers  of  gain  rather 
than  abstract  honor,  timid,  etc.,  and  middle-aged  men  are 
somewhat  between  the  two  in  character.  He  also 
analyzes  the  characters  of  the  noble,  the  rich  and  the 
poor.  While  to  be  sure,  there  is  much  truth  in  what  is 
said,  there  is  little  practical  help  with  a  real  audience. 
Each  audience  is  composite  in  its  makeup  and  the  special 
interests  of  every  group  are  so  various  that  the  only 
•help  a  speaker  can  have  is  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
those  particular  interests,  prejudices,  and  inclinations. 
We  advise  the  student  to  get  from  the  library  Aristotle's 
Rhetoric,  which  is  well  translated  and  easily  had.   Eead 


PURPOSE  OF  A  SPEECH  361 

iar  with  the  Articles  of  ('oiifcdei-itioii,  but  the  Constitution 
is  new.  Realize  that  you  are  conlending  against  an  attitude 
created  by  the  Henry  speech. 

Fifth  Dfl^.— Deliver  orally   the  speech  prepared  on  the  fourth 
day. 


Some  \Vi. 
speaker  slioukl  aiwci^ 

his  purpose  clearly  to  the  auuit^x^..  tviLii  tins  we  must 
differ.  It  is  certainly  necessary  to  have  your  purpose 
clearly  defined  in  your  own  mind^  but  it  is  often  very 
unwise  to  give  it  voice  either  before  or  after  it  is  accom- 
plished. We  can  easily  discern  the  purpose  of  Patrick 
Henry  in  his  address  (given  in  this  lesson)  to  the  Vir- 
ginia Convention,  especialh^  when  we  have  access  to  the 
addresses  of  other  men  in  reply  and  Henry's  later 
assaults  on  their  arguments.  But  Henry  would  have 
been  very  foolish  to  reveal  that  purpose  at  the  outset. 
When  a  theatrical  manager  comes  before  the  curtain  to 
address  the  audience  while  a  fire  is  being  extinguished 
behind  the  asbestos  curtain,  he  very  wisely  holds  back 
his  real  purpose — namely,  the  avoidance  of  a  panic.  To 
express  that  purpose  would  be  the  very  best  way  to 
defeat  it.  So  also  when  we  are  trying  to  win  over  an 
audience  to  our  point  of  view,  which  seems  directly 
counter  to  their  life  habits,  thoughts,  and  feelings,  we 
never  reveal  our  purpose  in  the  speech. 

Furthermore,  a  wise  man  does  not  ''crow"  or  "rub 
it  in"  after  he  has  been  successful.  His  reward  is  his 
purpose  accomplished.  In  this  connection  read  once 
more  page  61  of  Lesson  4. 


358  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Naturally,  when  on  the  floor  you  may  sense  situations 
quite  different  from  what  you  anticipated  and  you  may 
have  to  make  sudden  and  unexpected  modifications  in 
your  treatment.     The  rule  to  follow  is  this :     Keep  the 
purpose  unchanged  before  you;  readily  sacrifice  minor 
details   and   make    concessions    to    temporary   feelings; 
when  necessary  slur  over  fairly  essential  parts;  finally, 
if  no  headway  is  possible,  it  is  better  to  stop  trying  than 
to  antagonize  the  audience  permanently.    Sometimes  it  is 
wiser  to  let  your  purpose  wait  for  a  more  favora^ 
occasion    than    to    drive    against    a    hopelessly    ^ 
audience.    Yet  it  is  w^onderful  how  much  "" 
plished  by  a  speaker  who  make^'  '  '^ 

The  written  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  should  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  your  notebook. 


Fir  at  Dat/.— Read  the  lesson  over  three  times  and  make  an 
abstract  of  it. 

Second  Day.— Write  the  Phillips  speech,  using  the  left-hand  half 
of  a  piece  of  paper.  Fold  the  paper  down  the  center  and 
write  only  on  the  left  side  of  the  crease.  On  the  right  side, 
indicate  modifications  which  would  be  made  if  the  speaker 
were  talking  to  people  in  San  Francisco  who  had  never  been 
in  Boston.  His  purpose  is  to  raise  funds  for  an  historical 
society  to  purchase  Old  South  in  order  to  preserve  it. 

Third  Day.— Select  some  topic  in  which  you  are  interested,  some 
audience  with  which  you  are  familiar,  and  designate  a  pur- 
pose to  be  accomplished.  Then  outline  your  material  and 
modifications  as  indicated  on  page  357  of  this  lesson.  Deliver 
the  speech  with  only  the  outline  of  finally  ap])roved  material 
memorized. 

Fourth  Day.— Plan  a  speech  in  reply  to  Patrick  Henry.-  It  is  a 
speech  to  induce  the  Virginia  Convention  to  adopt  the  Con- 
stitution. Read  the  Constitution  and  any  school  history 
account  of  the  condition  of  the  country  when  the  Articles  of 
Confederation  were  in  force.  Work  this  speech  up  thor- 
oughly.   Remember  that  the  delegates  are  thoroughly  famil- 


PURPO^^E  of  a  speech  361 

ifir  witli  llu'  A  ft  ides  of  Coiifi-dci-il  ion,  but  the  Constitntiou 
is  new.  Kcnlizc  llinl  you  fuv  coiilcuding  a^ninst  an  attituck- 
created  by  tbe  Ileniy  speeeb. 

Fifth  Z)aiy.— Deliver  orally   tbe  speed)   prepared  on  the  fourtb 
day.  ■ 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testint,- 
his  knowledge  of  tlie  principles  in  tliis  lesson.  They 
are  suggesiiie  merely,  dealinp-  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  he  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  futuie  reference. 

L  What  is  meant  by  the  purpose  of  the  speech?  Is  it  a 
^(nieral  thing  or  a  specific  thing  f  Can  purposes  be  easily 
(  lassified? 

2.  When  does  the  purpose  first  arise?  How  h)ng  shoukl  it 
persist  ? 

3.  What  was  Aristotle's  classification  of  the  ends  of  speak- 
ing?   What  is  the  value  of  this  classification  ? 

4.  Can  you  give  Campbell 's  classification  ?  What  do  you 
think  of  it?  Assuming  it  correct  in  general  theory,  could  you 
improve  on  the  classification  he  gives? 

5.  What  do  we  mean  l)y  the  elements  used  in  constructing  a 
si)eech  ? 

6.  What  part  does  an  element  play  in  carrying  out  the  pur- 
pose of  the  speaker? 

7.  Should  the  speaker  have  his  purpose  clearly  formulated? 
Why  ? 

8.  In  preparing  his  message  for  the  purpose  of  accomplish- 
ing his  encl,  what  two  general  considerations  move  the  speaker? 

9.  What  do  you  think  of  the  Phillips  selection  ?  IIow  do  you 
like  the  style?  How  does  it  compare  with  that  of  Patrick 
Henry  ?    Which  reflects  the  greater  culture  ? 

10.  Can  you  make  a  rough  classification  of  purposes?    Try  it. 

11.  AVhat  are  the  steps  in  method  procedure  in  preparing  a 
speech,  with  the  purpose  as  the  guide? 

12.  Can  men  be  clas.sified  according  to  emotional  response? 
according  to  intellectual  attainments? 

13.  Is  an  audience  homogeneous,  or  are  the  individual  charac- 
liM'islics  widely  divergent?  What  effect  has  this  on  the  accom- 
])lisliin('iit  of  the  speaker's  purpose? 

14.  Should  the  speaker  always  stale  his  jjiirpose  clearly  to  the 
audience?    Why? 

302 


LESSON  20 

THE  EXPRESSIVE  VOICE 

With  the  exception  of  the  rules  for  posture  and  breath- 
iii.i;-  in  Lesson  1,  we  have  not  discussed  elocution,  a  subject 
^^•]lich  takes  account  of  the  expressive  powers  of  the  voice 
ill  speech.  We  have  paid  more  attention  to  psychological 
aspects  such  as  the  organization  of  ideas,  the  gathering 
of  material,  the  clear  grasp  of  details,  and  methods  of 
impressing  all  these  things  upon  the  audience.  Now  we 
wish  to  add  that  the  mere  selection  of  proper  words  in 
c;'rtain  groupings  will  not  bring  the  greatest  success  with 
an  audience.  The  voice  must  be  used  effectively  to  get 
tli(^  bpst  results.  It  is  possible  to  spoil  the  most  beautiful 
composition  by  poor  vocal  expression,  harsh  tones,  and 
monotony.  One  must  lend  to  the  wisdom  of  the  mind  the 
])('auty  of  the  voice.  In  this  lesson  we  shall  consider  what 
tlie  voice  adds  to  the  message.  The  lesson  may  be 
regarded  as  a  continuation  of  number  seven;  and  it  would 
])('  well  for  the  student  to  review  the  advice  given  there 
before  taking  up  this  new  matter. 

Excellence  of  posture  and  breathing  will  insure  a  good 
habitual  tone  of  voice.  In  this  lesson  we  shall  analyze 
that  voice  as  a  succession  of  constantly  varying  sounds, 
and  we  shall  explain  the  expressional  effects  of  those 
variations.  We  assume,  at  the  outset,  that  the  student 
has  developed  a  good  normal  tone — that  he  stands  cor- 
rectly, has  complete  control  of  his  breathing,  and  speaks 
with  throat  well  relaxed.     He  has  no  constriction  any- 

303 


3r,4  EFFECTIVE  IMIBLIC  SPEAKING 

where  and  all  tlie  operations  of  sonnd  production  are  easy, 
natural,  full,  and  strong. 

The  sounds  which  follow  one  another  in  speech  are 
produced  nnicli  like  the  notes  of  a  wind  instrument  of  tli(^ 
horn  group.  They  have  certain  distinguishable  charac- 
teristics. In  the  first  place  each  has  a  recognizable 
qualitij,  and  they  come  forth  at  a  more  or  less  rapid  raie ; 
while  each  has  a  definite  pitch  and  force.  As  we  listen  to 
the  sounds  of  a  man  speaking,  w^e  notice  changes  in  qual- 
ity, rate,  pitch,  and  force.  We  shall  be  interested  in  these 
possible  variations  in  the  tone  of  the  voice  and  their  value 
in  expression. 

].       (j)rALITY 

1.  Nature. — If  one  were  to  hear  a  man  talking,  in  the 
distance,  though  the  exact  words  might  not  be  audible, 
the  humdu  vuice  equality  would  be  unmistakable.  The 
voice  could  not  be  mistaken  for  the  cry  of  an  animal. 
Again,  if  you  were  to  hear  three  pc^ople  with  whom  you 
are  familiar  talking  in  the  next  room,  and  each  should 
repeat  the  same  words  after  the  other,  you  could  say, 
^'Now  Smith  is  speaking;  now  it  is  Jones;  and  now  it  is 
Brown."  There  is  an  individual  equality  which  distin- 
guishes each  man's  voice  from  that  of  every  other  man. 

2.  Physical  Basis. — The  raw  material  of  every  vocal 
sound  which  has  quality,  is  an  indefinite  murmur  made 
by  the  vocal  cords.  These  cords  are  like  little  cushions 
or  lips  pressed  together  in  the  larynx  (voice  box  or 
Adam's  apple).  As  the  air  comes  up  the  windpipe  from 
the  lungs,  they  rapidly  press  togc^ther  and  fly  apart  thus 
letting  the  air  ])ass  ui)ward  in  a  series  of  puffs.  At  th(^ 
cords,  the  sound  audible  from  these  puffs  is  an  indefinite 
murmur  or  buzzing.  It  is  much  like  the  buzz  made  by 
the  lips  of  the  player  at  the  mouthpiece  of  a  simple  horn. 
But  just  as  the  tube  and  flaring  ])ell  of  the  horn  modify, 
I'einforce,  and  give  (|naliiy  to  the  mlsern1)le  buzz  at  its 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  VOICE 


365 


inontlipiece,  so  also  the  cavities  of  the  throat,  iiioutli,  and 
nose,  give  quality  or  ton(^  to  the  vocal  mnrmur. 


ScHEMK  OF  Vocal  Organs 
Agents  of  Resonation: 

A — Hard  and  Fixed — Bones  of  SkuH  (B.  S-K.),  Bones  of  Nasal  Cavity 
(N.  C),  Superior  MaxiUary  or  Hard  Palate  (S.  M.),  Teeth  (D),  and 
Inferior   Maxillary  or  Lower  Jaw    (I.   M.). 

n — Soft  and  Flexible — Ventricle  above  Vocal  Cords  (V.),  Upper  Cham- 
ber of  Larvnx  (L.),  Epiglottis  (B.),  Pharynx  (Ph.),  Soft  Palate  (P.), 
Cheeks    (Ch.),   Tongue    (T.),   and   Lips    (L.). 

Also  note  C.  —  vocal  cords,  G.  =  gullet,  Tr.  =  trachea  or  windpipe. 
Cavities    are   left   wliite. 


The  passages  through  which  the  sound  passes  as  it  is 
modified  in  quality,  have,  in  some  places,  hard  and  fixed 
walls,  while  in  other  places,  the  walls  are  soft  and  flex- 


366  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ible.  The  size  and  shape  of  these  cavities  and  the  texture 
of  their  walls,  at  the  time  the  sound  is  being  produced, 
determine  the  quality.  Since  the  soft  and  flexible  parts 
can  change  in  size,  shape,  and  texture,  it  is  evident  that 
a  man's  voice  may  have  different  qualities  at  differant 
times.  The  human  voice  therefore  has  variable  quality 
while  that  of  the  simple  horn  is  fixed.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  contributions  of  the  hard  and  fixed  parts,  tend  to  pr(^- 
serve  a  fixed  and  individual  element.  We  are  particu- 
larly interested  in  the  possibilities  of  quality  change  and 
what  such  changes  express.  This  brings  us  to  the  mental 
factors  involved. 

3.  Psychological  Basis  of  Qualify  Changes. — When 
one  experiences  an  emotion,  an  integral  part  of  that  emo- 
tion is  the  physical  adjustment.  Thus  in  anger,  the  heart 
beats  faster,  the  breathing  is  quick  and  the  muscles  grow 
tense.  In  joy,  there  is  relaxation,  a  strong,  steady  heart 
beat  and  depth  of  breathing.  The  whole  body  is  affected, 
being  dominated  by  the  emotion  in  the  mind.  But  of  all 
the  parts  of  the  body  to  respond,  one  of  the  most  sensi- 
tive is  the  resonation  system  near  and  above  the  vocal 
cords.  The  slightest  emotion  instantly  alters  the  size, 
shape,  and  texture  of  the  resonating  cavities  by  action 
on  the  soft  resonators.  In  anger  there  is  constriction  and 
tenseness  of  texture.  The  tone  produced  is  flat  and 
throaty.  It  is  known  as  the  guttural.  AVhen  one  is 
inspired  by  the  magnificent  and  good,  there  is  openness, 
relaxation,  and  expansion,  and  we  hear  the  full,  round 
orotund.  In  fear  we  get  only  a  toneless  'whisper.  In 
great  joy,  there  is  resiliency  and  power  as  reflected  in  the 
brilliant  quality — a  bugle-like  tone. 

These  are  merely  types  and  do  not  exhaust  the  list. 
There  are  numberless  qualities  just  as  there  are  number- 
less shades  of  emotion.  Yet  no  emotion  is  so  slight  as 
not  to  show  in  the  voice.  I^ven  a  minor  disapy)ointm<'nt 
gives  tlic  voice  a  ''hollow  ring." 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  VOICE 


367 


4.  AppUcation  hij  fJie  Speaker. — It  is  agreed  lliat  in 
speech  we  wish  to  convey  our  thoughts  and  feelings  in  the 
most  compk^te  and  vivid  manner  possibhi.  Every  emo- 
tion experienced  shouhl  show  in  the  voice.  Furthermore, 
our  emotional  responses  to  ideas  throw  much  light  on  the 
nature  of  those  ideas.  If  the  ideas  are  clear  and  strong, 
tlu^ir  emotional  accompaniment  will  be  clear,  and  expres- 
sion which  gives  the  whole  is  far  more  than  a  lifeless 
outline.  Let  us  illustrate  by  means  of  a  passage  from 
Lincoln's  Second  Inaugural  Address.  First  read  it  to 
a  friend  in  a  perfunctory,  business-like  way,  disregarding 
the  notes  in  the  margin  and  not  taking  the  trouble  to 
make  all  the  images  arise  vividlv  in  vour  mind. 


Neither  party  expected  for  the  war  the  magni- 
tude or  the  duration  which  it  has  already  at- 
tained. Neither  anticipated  that  the  cause  of 
the  conflict  might  cease  with,  or  even  before,  the 
conflict  itself  should  cease.  Each  looked  for  an 
easier  triumph  and  a  result  less  fundamental 
and  a.stounding.  Both  read  the  same  Bible,  and 
pray  to  the  same  God ;  and  each  invokes  his  aid 
against  the  other.  It  may  seem  strange  that  any 
men  should  dare  to  ask  a  just  God's  assistance 
in  wringing  their  bread  from  the  sweat  of  other 
men'.s  faces;  but  let  us  judge  not,  that  we  be 
not  judged.  The  prayers  of  both  could  not  be 
answered — those  of  neither  have  been  fully 
answered. 

The  Almighty  has  his  own  purposes.  "Woe 
unto  the  world  because  of  otfenses !  for  it  must 
needs  be  that  offenses  come ;  but  woe  unto  that 
man  by  whom  the  offense  cometh."  If  we  shall 
suppose  that  American  slavery  is  one  of  those 
otT'enses  which,  in  the  providence  of  God.  must 
needs  come,  but  which,  having  continued  through 
liis  appointed  time,  he  now  wills  to  remove,  and 
that  he  gives  to  both  North  and  South  this  ter- 
rible war,  as  the  woe  due  to  those  by  whom  the 
offense  came,  shall  we  di.scern  therein  any  de- 
parture from  those  divine  attributes  which  the 
believers  in  a  living  God  always  ascribe  to  him? 
Fondly  do  we  hope — f(M^vently  do  we  pray — tliat 


Xormal 
fccliiiff. 


Irony  and 

slio-lit 

bittfrnfss. 


Solemnity. 


Confidonpo. 


368  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

this  miglity  scourge  of  war  may  speedily  pass 
away.     Yet,  if  God  wills  that  it  continue  until      Angry  resolve 
all  tile  wealth  piled  by  the  bondman's  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  of  unrequited  toil  shall  be 
sunk,  and  until  every  drop  of  blood  drawn  with 
the  lash  sImII  be  paid  by  another  drawn  with 
the  sword. — as  it  was  said  two  thousand  years      Sudden  change 
ago,  so  still  it  must  be  said.  "The  judgments  of      to 
the  Lord  are  true  and  righteous  altogether."  vesiffnation. 

With  malice  toward  none ;  with  charity  for 
all ;  with  firmness  in  the  right,  as  God  gives  us  Kindliness, 
to  see  the  right,  let  us  strive  on  to  finish  t-he  work 
we  are  in ;  to  bind  up  the  nation 's  wounds ;  to 
care  for  him  who  shall  have  borne  the  battle,  ^it.v- 
and  for  his  widow,  and  his  orphan — to  do  all 
which  may  achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  last- 
ing peace  among  ourselves,  and  with  all  nations.      Quiet  peace. 

Xow  read  it  again  as  well  as  you  can,  noting-  the  emo- 
tion cnes  on  the  side.  Get  every  idea  vividly  in  mind. 
Call  up  the  pictures,  as  of  the  lash  falling  on  the  slave, 
and  feel  the  proper  indignation,  ^lake  the  thoughts  live 
and  move  and  have  being  in  your  mind,  and  the  emotions 
will  come  and  the  vocal  quality  will  take  care  of  itself. 
Ask  5'our  friend  Avhicli  was  the  more  effective  rendition. 

If  the  speaker  is  unembarrassed  and  at  home  before 
his  audience,  the  s;^Tupathetic  and  expressive  changes  in 
quality  will  take  place  in  direct  proportion  to  the  com- 
pleteness with  which  what  he  says  is  real  to  him.  He 
must  keep  the  attention  on  the  thought  and  the  concrete 
situations  which  gave  rise  to  it.  Situations  must  be  vivid 
to  the  mind's  eye  and  the  Avliole  nature  must  be  allowed 
to  respond  in  an  unrestrained  manner  to  them.  If  that 
be  done,  the  message  will  go  forth  living,  throldiing, 
effective. 

Suppose  one  says  to  a  baby,  "  Til  bring  yon  a  beautiful 
ball  to  play  with,"  using  a  flat,  uiieiithusinstic  (|uality  so 
that  the  words  will  mak(»  their  own,  unaided  im])ression. 
There  Avill  he  litth*  response.  But  if  one  has  a  com])l(^te 
anticipation  of  the  many-colored  ball  and  tlu^  frolics  with 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  VOICE  369 

it,  and  then  lets  the  voice  show  the  enthusiti>ni  aroused 
by  the  pictures,  the  baby  will  respond  Avith  glee,  for  the 
meaning  conveyed  to  him  is  richer  and  fuller.  It  is  the 
same  way  with  adults,  though  the  abstract  word  symbols 
have  more  weight  with  them  than  with  a  child.  At  no 
time  does  the  enriching  value  of  vocal  quality  disappear. 
The  voice  quality  reveals  the  full  subject  and  also  the 
soul  of  the  speaker.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  speaker 
must  make  all  his  thoughts  live  again  as  he  gives  them 
voice.  It  is  only  with  attention  on  such  thoughts  that  he 
will  have  the  emotional  experiences  which  will  be  revealed 
in  quality  changes. 

Affectations  and  exaggerations  of  qualify'  are  worse 
than  a  lack  of  sympathy.  A  tone  of  manufactured  pathos 
is  disgusting  and  pretended  indignation  ridiculous. 
Avoid  such  sentimentality  and  be  natural.  All  we  want 
is  the  proper  human  emotion  which  is  really  felt  when  the 
speaker  is  living  in  his  message  and  expressing  it  with- 
out restraint. 

So  also  the  affecting  of  a  superior  "speaking  voice"  or 
artificial  tone  of  supposed  elegance  and  impressiveness, 
is  to  be  avoided.  It  is  like  the  "company  voice"  which 
any  bright  child  recognizes  when  his  mother  is  foolish 
enough  to  "turn  it  on."  The  speaker  must  be  a  real, 
genuine,  honest,  unaffected  man,  delivering  his  message 
in  a  straightforward  manner.  His  voice  shows  no  con- 
scious exaggeration  on  the  one  hand,  no  restraint  on  the 
other. 

2.     Rate 

1.  Xafure  and  Pln/sical  Basis. — Rate  is  simply  the 
speed  with  which  one  sound  succeeds  another  in  speech. 
Physically  it  is  regulated  by  the  rapidity  of  movement  of 
the  organs  of  speech.  Sometimes  one  speaks  more  rap- 
idly than  his  average,  or  normal  rate,  and  sometimes 
more  slowlv. 


370  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

2.  Psycliological  Basis. — These  changes  in  rate  have  a 
mental  origin.  One  cannot  express  ideas  more  quickly 
than  his  mind  i^roduces  them.  Generally  speaking,  rate 
is  governed  by  the  rapidity  of  the  speaker's  mental  oper- 
ations. In  rapid  thinking,  the  rate  is  fast ;  in  slow  think- 
ing, the  rate  is  retarded.  But  besides  this  involuntaiy 
control  on  rate,  the  speaker  often  voluntarily  regulates 
his  rate  out  of  consideration  for  his  audience.  If  he  is 
dealing  with  easy  and  familiar  matter  which  they  can 
easily  and  quickly  take  in,  he  permits  his  rate  to  become 
rapid,  but  wdien  he  is  attacking  a  problem  which  is  either 
new  to  them  or  difficult,  he  purposely  goes  slowly.  It  is 
here  that  inexperienced  speakers  make  mistakes;  they 
exercise  no  voluntary  control  over  their  rate,  but  rattle 
on  or  slow  up  just  as  they  are  in  easy  mental  trim  them- 
selves, or  are  floundering  in  difficulties. 

3.  Application. — Obviously  the  application  will  deal 
mostly  with  voluntary  regulation  of  rate.  The  speaker 
must  judge  his  audience  beforehand  or  sense  it  whih' 
speaking,  and  he  should  accommodate  his  rate  to  their 
thinking.  On  familiar  and  easy  passages,  he  must  not 
be  slow  for  that  would  be  boring;  but  on  difficult  passages 
he  must  refrain  from  setting  a  pace  beyond  the  mental 
speed  of  his  hearers.  Of  course,  rules  cannot  be  made 
which  will  cover  all  situations;  the  speaker  must  judge 
from  signs  before  him  whether  he  is  going  at  the  best 
pace  or  too  rapidly  or  too  slowly.  But  the  following- 
three  rules  may  safely  be  offered : 

(a)  Always  begin  slowly.  The  audience  has  not  set- 
th'd  down,  the  place  is  not  as  quiet  as  it  will  be  later, 
and  the  speaker  has  not  accommodated  his  voice  to  the 
room.  Besides  these  physical  <lraw})acks,  there  is  the 
mental  obstacle  of  scattered  attcidioii;  tlie  listeners  have 
not  settled  down  to  concentrate  on  the  speech.  For  all 
these  reasons  it  is  best  to  retard  the  i-ate  at  the  beginning. 

Example.     Kead  the  following  op(niing  of  "Webster's 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  VOICE  Ml 

Tu'ply  to  Hayiio,  to  a  friend.  First  read  it  at  normal  rate 
or  more  rapidh^;  tlien  read  it  slowly.  Question  liini  con- 
cerning the  effects. 

Mr.  President,  when  the  mariner  has  been  tossed  for  many 
days,  in  thick  weather,  and  on  an  unknown  sea,  he  naturally 
avails  himself  of  the  tirst  pause  in  the  storm,  the  earliest  glance 
of  the  sun,  to  take  his  latitude  and  ascertain  how  far  the  ele- 
ments have  driven  him  from  his  true  course.  Let  us  imitate  this 
prudence,  and,  before  we  float  further  on  the  waves  of  this  debate, 
refer  to  the  point  from  which  we  departed,  that  we  may  at  least 
be  able  to  conjecture  where  we  now  are.  I  ask  for  a  reading 
of  the  resolution. 

(The  resolution  on  the  sale  of  public  lands  was  read.) 
We  have  thus  heard  what  the  resolution  is,  which  is  actually 
before  us  for  consideration  ;  and  it  will  readily  occur  to  everyone 
that  it  is  almost  the  only  subject  about  which  something  has  not 
been  said  in  the  speech,  running  through  two  days,  by  which  the 
Senate  has  been  entertained  by  the  gentleman  from  South  Caro- 
lina. Eveiy  topic  in  the  wide  range  of  our  public  affairs,  whether 
past  or  present — everything,  general  or  local,  whether  belonging 
to  national  politics  or  party  politics,  seems  to  have  attracted 
more  or  less  of  the  honorable  member's  attention,  save  only  the 
resolution  before  the  Senate.  He  has  spoken  about  everything 
except  the  public  lands.  They  have  escaped  his  notice.  To 
that  subject,  in  all  his  excursions,  he  has  not  paid  even  the  cold 
respect  of  a  passing  glance. 

(b)  Retard  the  rate  tvhen  many  details  or  clear  images 
must  he  imparted.  This  is  common  in  descriptive  pas- 
sages. 

Exam  pie.  Read  the  folloAving  passage  first  at  normal 
or  rapid  rate  and  then  at  slow  rate  and  note  the  gain  in 
vividness. 

The  palaces  and  domes  of  Carthage  were  burning  with  the 
splendors  of  noon,  and  the  blue  waves  of  her  harbor  were  rolling 
and  gleaming  in  the  gorgeous  sunlight.  An  attentive  ear  could 
catch  a  low  munnur.  sounding  from  the  center  of  the  city,  which 
seemed  like  the  moaning  of  the  wind  before  a  tempest.  And  well 
it  might.  The  whole  people  of  Carthage,  .startled,  astounded  by 
the  report  that  Regulus  had  returned,  were  pouring,  a  mighty 
tide,  into  the  great  square  before  the  Senate  House.  There  were 
mothers  in   that  throng  whose  captive  sons  were  groaning  in 


372  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Roman  fetters,  maidens  whose  lovers  were  dying  in  the  distant 
dnngeons  of  Rome,  gray  haired  men  and  matrons,  whom  Roman 
steel  had  made  childless ;  and  with  wild  voices,  cursing  and 
groaning,  the  vast  throng  gave  vent  to  the  rage,  the  hate,  the 
anguish  of  long  years. 

(c)  When  the  matter  is  unfamilmr  and  difficult,  requir- 
ing much  parallel  thought,  make  the  delivery  slow.  For 
good  examples,  read  again  the  judge's  charge  to  a  jury  on 
page  220  of  Lesson  12,  and  the  selections  on  pages  55, 
56,  and  57  of  Lesson  4. 

Most  speakers  have  the  fault  of  using  too  rapid  a  rate. 
To  overcome  such  a  fault,  attend  well  to  all  that  you 
deliver;  treat  nothing  in  a  perfunctory  manner.  Then, 
when  you  find  yourself  hurrying  along,  consciously  put 
a  restraint  on  the  speed. 

Nervous  people  and  those  of  eager  temperament  are 
most  prone  to  the  fault  of  excessive  speed  in  delivery. 
Take  stock  of  yourself  and  note  the  way  your  tempera- 
ment affects  your  delivery.  Cultivate  a  smooth,  mod- 
el ate  rate. 

4.  Pauses. — In  connection  with  rate,  we  may  well 
consider  pauses.  They  are  important  in  expression.  We 
may  disting-uish  two  kinds  of  pauses,  the  logical  and  the 
dramatic.  Logical  pauses  are  tlie  frequent  short  stops 
which  mark  off  Avords  in  logical  thought  groups..  Note 
the  marking  of  the  following  passage  into  logical  thought 
groups. 

We  all,  /  with  e(|ual  sincerity,  /  profess  to  he  anxious  /  for  the- 
estahlishment  of  a  repuhlican  government  /  on  a  safe  and  solid 
basis.  /  It  is  the  object  of  the  wishes  of  every  honest  man  in  the 
United  States,  /  and  /  1  presume  I  shall  not  be  disbelieved  /  when 
I  declare  that  it  is  an  object,  /  of  all  others,  /  the  nearest  and 
most  dear  to  my  OAvn  heart.  /  The  means  of  accomplisliing  this 
great  purpose  /  become  the  most  important  study  /  which  can 
interest  mankind.  /  It  is  our  duty  /  to  examine  all  those  means  / 
with  ])eculi}ir  attention,  /  and  to  choose  the  best  and  most  effect- 
ual. /  It  is  our  duty  /  to  draw  from  nature.  /  tVom  reason,  / 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  VOICE  373 

from  examples,  /  the  jnstest  principles  of  i)oliey,  /  and  to  pursue 
and  apply  them  /  in  the  formation  of  our  government.  / 

Alexander  Ha  mil  Ion. 

Read  it,  observing  those  group  pauses.  Then  mark 
it  otherwise,  as,  for  instance,  making  a  pause  after 
''establishment"  and  leaving  out  the  one  after  "govern- 
ment." Make  other  similar  readjustments  and  you  will 
discover  that  the  exact  way  in  which  the  speaker  groups 
his  w^ofds  gives  much  indication  of  the  way  he  wants  his 
message  accepted.  In  actual  delivery,  the  correct  group- 
ing will  take  care  of  itself,  if  the  rate  is  normal  and  if  the 
speaker  is  really  attending  to  well  prepared  material. 

The  dramatic  pause  is  a  most  effective  device  for  giv- 
ing emphasis  to  a  passage.  Such  a  pause  made  before  the 
thing  to  be  emphasized,  prepares  the  audience  for  the 
stroke  when  it  comes  and  raises  their  anticipation  to  a 
high  pitch.  The  pause  after  the  emphatic  passage  gives 
a  moment  for  reflection,  for  the  thought  to  penetrate  with 
undiminished  force.  Note  the  following  and  read  it  with 
an  impressive  pause  where  the  dash  is  used. 

Of  all  the  social,  political  and  economic  disgraces  in  our  coun- 
try, the  blackest — child  labor,  is  the  most  inexcusable. 

Of  all  the  social,  political  and  economic  disgraces  in  our  eoun- 
try.  the  blackest,  child  labor — is  the  most  inexcusable. 

Or  even  greater  effect  may  be  gained  by  pausing  l)oth 
l)efore  and  after  the  emphasized  word  "child  labor." 

If  it  is  not  overworked,  the  speaker  can  get  remark- 
able results  w^ith  the  dramatic  pause. 

3.     Force 

1.  Nature. — From  the  standpoint  of  the  listener,  force 
is  the  loudness  of  the  voice  of  the  speaker.  It  measures 
the  distance  at  which  the  speech  can  be  heard. 

2.  Physical  Basis. — Physically,  the  force  varies  with 


374  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

variations  in  the  pressure  of  the  column  of  air  which  is 
propelled  from  the  lungs  during  speech,  and  that  pres- 
sure depends  on  the  degree  of  completeness  with  which 
the  diaphragm  is  relaxed  and  the  degree  of  pressure 
exerted  by  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  upon  it. 

3.  Psychological  Basis  of  Force  Regulation. — A 
speaker  voluntarily  tries  to  regulate  his  general  force  to 
the  space  to  be  filled  by  his  voice.  Involuntarily,  he  uses 
greater  force  on  the  Avords  or  passages  which  seem  of 
greater  value  or  importance.  This  is  stress.  Of  course 
some  words  are  deliberately  stressed,  but  most  stressing 
arises  unconsciously  simply  because  the  mind  is  thinking- 
out  the  thought  as  one  of  greater  importance  than  others 
related  to  it. 

4.  Application. — A  speaker  should  practice  all  degrees 
of  force  so  that  he  can  adopt  the  jDroper  force  in  a  large 
or  small  hall,  without  spoiling  the  quality  of  his  voice 
and  without  uttering  shrill  sounds  of  too  high  pitch. 
This  can  be  done  readily  enough  if,  in  the  practice,  the 
speaker  regulates  the  pressure  from  the  abdomen  and 
diaphragm  and  refrains  from  allowing  his  voice  to  ascend 
the  scale  or  change  its  pitch.  Breathe  deeply  after  the 
approved  manner.  (Lesson  7,  pages  115  to  122.)  Then 
as  the  air  is  steadily  controlled  by  an  even  relaxation 
of  the'  diaphragm,  speak  in  a  normal  quality,  full  and 
round,  but  quiet  in  force,  as  though  speaking  in  a  small 
parlor.  Then  increase  the  pressure  of  the  abdomen  on 
the  slowly  relaxing  diaphragm  and  speak  louder,  as  if 
in  a  fair  sized  hall,  without  raising  the  pitch  or  changing 
the  normal  quality.  Continue  to  increase  the  loudness  by 
this  method  until  you  are  talking  as  though  in  a  great 
theatre.  Do  not  alloir  the  pitch  to  rise  and  preserve  th(^ 
normal  quality.  Then  make  variations  in  force  alone  by 
control  from  the  center.  For  exercise  purposes,  take 
any  passage  you  may  wish.  The  Webster  opening,  quoted 
in  this  lesson,  will  do. 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  VOICE  375 

If  the  speaker  can  control  bis  general  force  in  this  way, 
can  secure  a  full,  carrying  voice  without  any  element  of 
shrill  calling  or  strained  shouting,  he  has  a  most  valu- 
able possession. 

Just  as  it  is  w^ell  to  begin  with  a  rather  slow  rate,  so 
it  is  best  to  open  a  speech  in  a  tone  slightly  below  normal 
in  force.  This  compels  the  audience  to  become  quiet 
and  give  its  attention  promptly.  The  subdued  force  and 
slow  rate  should  be  maintained  for  a  while,  and  then  the 
speaker  may  gradually  increase  the  force  until  he  finds 
the  best  accommodation  to  the  room.  The  force  thus 
fixed  upon  becomes  -the  normal  one  for  that  speech  and 
variations  for  emphasis  are  made  above  and  below  it. 
It  is  not  only  offensive  to  the  audience  but  wearing  on  the 
speaker  to  exert  more  force  than  the  place  to  be  filled 
calls  for.  Just  the  right  force  conveys  an  impression  of 
self-possession,  mastery,  and  reserve  power. 

We  have  remarked  that  certain  passages  can  be  made 
more  emphatic  by  delivering  them  with  greater  force. 
But  they  can  also  be  made  emphatic  by  a  delivery  of 
impressive,  subdued  force.  Eead  the  underlined  part  first 
with  increased  force  and  then  with  subdued  force. 

But  I  say  to  you,  The  judgments  of  the  Lord  are  true  and 
rii^hteous    altogether. 


This  device  of  lowering  the  voice  is  often  very  effective. 
It  is  useful  not  only  to  emphasize  a  passage  but  also  to 
secure  attention  when  a  murmur  is  heard  in  the  audience. 
The  sudden  quiet  attracts  attention  and  stops  annoyances. 

4.     Pitch 

1.  Nature. — By  pitch  we  mean  that  characteristic  of 
a  sound  which  places  it  high  or  low  on  the  musical  scale. 
Of  course  the  words  high  and  low"  are  figurative.  We 
might  just  as  well  say  shrill  and  sober. 


876  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

2.  Physical  Basis. — The  pitch  of  a  sound  is  deter- 
mined by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  puffs  of  air  from  the 
lungs  escape  through  the  lips  of  the  vocal  cords.  The 
pitch  of  a  siren  whistle  depends  upon  the  number  of  puff's 
of  air  which  escape  through  its  tube  each  second.  Here 
the  principle  is  the  same.  But  the  mechanism  which  reg- 
ulates the  speed  with  which  these  vocal  lips  close  and  open 
and  thus  let  the  puffs  through,  is  very  intricate.  There 
are  many  little  muscles  which  draw  the  vocal  cords  tense 
so  that  they  move  rapidly,  or  relax  them  so  that  the  move- 
ment is  slow.  Furthermore  the  cords  are  controlled  so 
that  they  come  only  partly  together  or  wholly  so,  so  that 
they  move  part  of  their  length  or  their  entire  length.  All 
these  things  control  the  nature  and  speed  of  the  escaping 
puffs  and  determine  the  pitch  of  the  resulting  sound.  A 
speaker  need  not  think  of  this  mechanism  at  all ;  it  takes 
care  of  itself.  He  simply  thinks  of  the  sound  he  is  to 
produce,  and  the  mind,  giving  the  order,  sets  the  mech- 
anism in  operation  with  absolute  precision.  In  most 
cases,  all  the  speaker  need  do  is  to  think  his  ideas  and 
not  even  have  his  mind  on  the  sound. 

3.  Psycliological  Basis. — Changes  in  pitch,  known  as 
inflections,  take  place  naturally  as  ideas  form  themselves 
in  definite  relations  to  each  other  and  to  the  receiving 
audience.  Thus  when  one  idea  is  more  important  than 
another  and  is  to  receive  stress  on  the  word  that  repre- 
sents it,  there  is  a  natural  rise  in  pitch  preceding  the 
stress  and  a  recovery  afterward.  When  a  logical  pause 
is  reached  and  the  thought  is  not  completed  but  needs  one 
or  more  such  word-groups  to  complete  it,  the  voice  nat- 
urally makes  a  slight  upward  bend  in  pitch.     Thus  you 

say,  '*As  Webster  addressed  the  audience "  and  the 

voice  goes  up,  indicating  that  the  relation  of  what  shall 
be  said  to  what  has  been  said  is  that  of  something  neces- 
sary to  complete  its  sense.  The  fall  shows  completed 
sense  and  takes  place  naturally  at  the  end  of  the  state- 


THE  EXPRESSIVE  VOICE  377 

ment  of  a  complete  idea,  When  the  attitude  toward  the 
audience  is  one  of  interrogation,  tlie  voice  slides  up  or 
down  in  pitch  to  indicate  to  them  the  notion  that  an 
answer  of  this  or  that  sort  is  wanted.  Note  the  upward 
slide  in  "Are  we  to  stand  idly  by  in  this  crisis?"  and  the 
downward  slide  in  "Who  is  so  base  as  would  be  a  bond- 
man ? ' ' 

4.  Application. — All  the  inflections  take  care  of  them- 
selves if  the  speaker  is  well  prepared  in  his  thought.  In 
the  paragraph  above  we  have  not  enumerated  all  the 
various  inflections  known  to  technical  elocution,  but  we 
have  given  enough  to  show  that  inflections  flow  naturally 
from  the  relationship  which  the  ideas  about  to  be  ex- 
pressed hold  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker.  His  attention 
should  not  be  on  inflections ;  it  should  be  on  ideas. 

But  one  may  well  look  carefully  to  the  normal  pitch  of 
his  voice.  Inflections  are  variations  above  or  below  the 
normal  pitch  or  average  key  in  which  a  man  speaks.  It 
is  wise  to  cultivate  a  fairly  low  pitch.  If  the  speaker  has 
learned  how  to  breathe  correctly  and  he  is  calm  and  self- 
possessed  during  delivery,  it  is  very  probable  that  his 
pitch  will  be  low.  By  this  we  do  not  mean  to  advise  the 
assumption  of  a  ponderous  double  bass.  We  merely  wish 
to  warn  against  the  irritating  high  pitch  with  which  many 
speakers  annoy  their  auditors.  Listen  carefully  to  your 
voice  and  determine  if  it  has  a  good  middle  pitch.  If  it 
is  too  shrill,  practice  for  a  lower  pitch.  The  higher  the 
pitch,  the  more  tension  on  the  vocal  cords  and  the  sooner 
the  voice  gives  out;  the  lower  the  pitch,  the  greater  the 
relief  and  possibility  of  sustained  effort. 

Some  speakers,  especially  those  of  the  cart-tail  variety, 
have  an  annoying  habit  of  finishing  every  impressive 
statement  with  rising  inflection.  It  is  a  sort  of  challenge, 
defying  contradiction.  Eead  these  words  with  a  strong 
upward  inflection  on  the  last  and  you  will  get  our  idea : 

"This  candidate  is  the  greatest  patriot  of  the  age!" 


378  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Of  course  the  sense  calls  for  a  downward  inflection.  If 
you  have  fallen  into  any  such  spell-binding  vices,  elimi- 
nate them  as  soon  as  possible, 

5.     Conclusion 

If  the  speaker  masters  breathing  and  control  and  then 
practices  for  various  modulations  in  quality,  force,  pitch, 
and  rate,  he  will  develop  a  wonderful  instrument  for 
expression,  a  sympathetic  musical  accompaniment  for  the 
words  which  symbolize  his  thoughts.  The  expressive 
voice  adds  much  to  the  bare  vocabulary  and  logic  of  the 
speaker. 

We  no  longer  recommend  that  speeches  which  are 
expected  to  do  real  work  should  be  memorized.  But  we 
do  believe  that  it  is  well  to  memorize  and  practice  the 
declamation  of  passages  from  the  works  of  great  orators 
as  an  exercise  in  modulation.  Take  impressive  selections 
and  deliver  them  as  an  actor  would,  giving  every  ounce 
of  meaning  to  the  passage  that  your  voice  can  contrib- 
ute. Take  argumentative  passages,  which  require  care- 
ful inflection,  emotional  passages  which  call  out  many  dif- 
ferent qualities,  earnest  passages  which  call  for  varying 
degrees  of  force.  In  short,  the  practicing  of  matter 
already  composed,  with  the  purpose  in  view  of  making  the 
most  of  them  vocally,  is  a  good  exercise  to  give  you  easy 
control  over  all  the  powers  of  your  voice.  It  also  removes 
the  restraint  which  keeps  many  speakers  from  showing 
their  real  feelings  in  their  voices.  We  recommend  there- 
fore declamation  for  practice,  and  in  actual  delivery, 
attention  to  thoroughly  prepared  thought  and  earnestness 
of  purpose. 


THE  EXPRESF^IVE  VOICE  379 

Assignment  op  Work 

TIk'  Avrittfu  exercises  in  this  entire  lesson  slimild  bo 
ciuciully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  tlie  written  exer- 
cises in  vour  notebook. 


Firsit  Day. — Road  the  less^on  through  twice  and  review  thoroughly 
Lesson  7. 

Second  Day. — Read  some  book  of  oratorical  selections  and  pick 
out  one  which  appeals  to  you  and  which  has  quite  a  range 
of  feeling.  Then  copy  it  and  make  an  emotion  analysis 
similar  to  the  one  we  have  made  for  the  Lincoln's  Second 
Inaugural.  Then  practice  reading  with  the  proper  cjuality 
changes.  Keep  your  mind  primarily  on  the  thought  and 
feeling  so  that  the  quality  is  the  natural  result  of  your 
emotion. 

Third  Day. — Take  another  selection  and  mark  in  the  margin 
the  proper  rates.  Thus  use  the  degrees  normal  rate,  slow 
rate,  very  slow ;  fast  rate,  very  fast.  The  idea  is  to  indi- 
cate what  you  think  would  be  desirable  rate  modulations 
to  make  in  consideration  of  the  audience.  Append  a  note 
describing  the  kind  of  audience  to  which  you  imagine  the 
speech  is  delivered.  If  you  can  prepare  an  original  speech, 
so  much  the  better. 

Fourth  Day. — Practice  the  exercise  on  degrees  of  force.  Make 
up  a  short  announcement  and  deliver  it  first  to  ten  imag- 
inary people,  then  to  fifty,  to  two  hundred,  to  a  thousand, 
to  two  thousand.  This  exercise  should  be  practiced  very 
often. 

Fifih  Day. — 'Make  a  complete  analysis  of  your  own  voice  and 
vocal  habits,  noting  faults.  ]\Iake  notes  after  the  following 
items : 

1.  Quality— flexibility  

2.  Force   (a)   Normal 

(b)  Flexibility 

(c)  Control    

8.     Pitch    (a)   Normal  key,  high  or  low 

(b)   Flexibility    

4.  Rate     (a)   Normal,  how  many  words  a  minute,   av- 

erage   

(b)    Ability  to  accommodate 

5.  Special  faults  or  peculiarities 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  tne  student  to  use  in  testing- 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  m  this  lesson.  They 
aie  suggest  ire  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook   for  future  reference. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  elocution?  Is  the  study  of  elocution 
of  any  value  to  the  i)i"actical  public  speaker?     Why? 

2.  In  what  respt^cts  can  the  speaking  voice  be  modified? 
What   is   the  purpose  or   function   of  these   modulations? 

;i  Can  you  gi^■e  a  detinition  of  quality  ?  Of  human  quality? 
Of  individual  quality  .'     Of  special,  emotion  quality  ? 

4.  What  is  the  physical  basis  of  quality?  Which  of  the  two 
kinds  of  resonation  walls  plays  the  larger  part  in  (juality  changes? 

5.  Explain  why  a  change  in  quality  expresses  a  change  in 
emotion. 

6.  Do  you  believe  that  the  emotion  analysis  of  the  Lincoln 
selection  is  correct  ?  What  modifications  or  additions  could  you 
make  ? 

7.  What  is  the  best  way  for  a  speaker  to  control  his  quality 
during  delivery  ?    Should  he  think  about  quality  ? 

8.  What  are  the  two  sources  of  rate  control? 

!).  Can  you  give  the  three  rules  selected  as  important  in  rela- 
tion to  rate  control? 

10.  What  are  the  two  kinds  of  pauses;'  Where  dn  the  logical 
pauses  take  place? 

n.     Of  what  value  is  the  dramatic  pause? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  general  force?  What  is  the  most  com- 
mon speaking  fault  connected  with  force?  I  low  can  it  be 
cured  ? 

LS.  Can  you  get  emphasis  by  reduced  force?  Is  it  wise  to 
do  so  sometimes? 

14.  What  is  the  nalure  of  inflection?  Can  inflections  be  con- 
sciously controlled  ? 

IT).     Whv  is  it  well  lo  have  a  faii-lv   low.  nornuil,  or  average 

pilch.' 

:^'0 


LESSON  21 


GESTURES 


In  the  last  lesson,  we  spoke  of  the  expressive  voice 
and  its  contributions  to  the  message  of  the  speaker.  The 
effects  of  well-selected  words  were  considered  as  supple- 
mented by  the  modulations  of  the  voice.  But  besides  this 
appeal  which  the  speaker  makes  to  the  ear  of  the  audi- 
ence, he  also  makes  an  appeal  to  the  eye  by  his  bodily 
attitudes,  his  gestures,  and  the  expressions  of  his  face. 
It  is  the  appeal  to  the  eye  which  we  shall  discuss  in  this 
lesson.  The  expressiveness  of  bodily  postures  and  move- 
ments must  not  be  overlooked,  for  much  meaning  is  added 
to  the  message  by  them.  Indeed,  a  single  flash  of  the 
eye,  a  turn  of  the  hand,  a  forward  swing  of  the  body, 
may  say  more  than  all  the  words  in  an  entire  address. 

1.     Causes  of  Gestures 

Broadly  speaking,  gestures  may  be  divided  into  two 
great  groups  according  to  tlie  causes  which  start  them. 
There  may  be  an  involuntaiy,  natural  impulse  or  there 
may  be  a  voluntary  and  deliberate  desire  to  use  a  ges- 
ture to  supplement  words.  Let  us  explain  first  the  invol- 
untary gesture  which  almost  always  expresses  feeling 
and  not  intellectual  discernment. 

We  have  said  that  a  feeling  of  any  sort,  and  especially 
a  sudden  emotion,  consists  not  only  of  a  mental  state, 
but  also  of  a  complete  adjustment  of  the  physical  organ- 
ism. In  anger  there  are  the  changed  circulation  and 
breathing  and  the  tenseness  of  the  muscles.    Any  move- 

381 


382  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

ment  made  at  that  time  will  show  the  existing  muscular 
tenseness  and  express  the  inward  state  of  the  maker  of  it. 
The  physical  adjustment  peculiar  to  an  emotion  influ- 
ences the  character  of  any  posture  and  movement  at  the 
time  the  emotion  is  experienced. 

Then  there  are  reactions  which  are  natural  to  certain 
situations  and  which  have  been  handed  down  through 
the  ages.  When  aggressively  angry  we  thrust  out  the 
chin,  draw  back  the  lips,  and  throw  the  body  forAvard. 
This  was  the  threatening  attitude  which  our  prehistoric 
ancestor  presented  to  his  foe.  When  we  feel  in  the  same 
way,  even  though  we  are  not  preparing  for  a  physical 
encounter,  we  assume  the  same  attitude.  It  is  a  reflex 
or  habitual  response  which  goes  with  the  situation.  Wlien 
a  disagreeable  odor  is  near,  the  edges  of  the  nostrils 
draw  up.  When  w^e  are  experiencing  the  emotion  of 
resentment  or  offense,  the  nose  is  turned  up  also.  Conse- 
quently it  is  clear  that  there  is  a  deep  biological  and 
psychological  basis  for  involuntary  gestures,  for  the  atti- 
tudes which  we  promptly  and  unconsciously  take  when 
the  mind  is  assailed  with  certain  thoughts  with  strong 
feeling  associations.  These  gestures  show  themselves 
promptly  just  as  quality  changes  of  the  voice  do,  and  they 
are  also  almost  entirely  out  of  the  control  of  the  speaker. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  voluntary  gestures  are  made 
deliberately  because  the  speaker  considers  that  they  will 
help  him  express  his  ideas.  Thus  one  says,  ''The  box 
Avas  about  so  long  and  so  wide,"  holding  his  hands  apart 
the  appropriate  distances.  One  might  say,  sweeping  his 
hand  before  him,  ''There  stretched  the  vast  prairie  as 
far  as  the  eye  could  see."  He  deliberately  makes  the 
gesture  to  enforce  the  idea  of  expanse  and  to  cause  the 
picture  to  arise  more  vividly.  But  even  many  of  these 
gestures  are  made  without  previous  intent  on  the  part 
of  the  speaker;  they  simply  take  place  as  he  utters  the 
words  in  harmony  with  them.     Consequently  wo  can  say 


GESTURES  383 

that  by  far  the  greater  number  of  gestures  are  made 
without  conscious  direction  and  come  into  existence  as 
certain  ideas  and  feelings  flood  the  mind  of  the  speaker. 
This  is  an  important  thing  to  know,  because  it  will 
enable  us  to  view  the  study  and  practice  of  gestures  in 
a  sensible  light.  From  it  we  gather  that  the  study  of  a 
system  of  gestures  is  not  of  value  to  enable  a  speaker  to 
make  a  gesture  deliberately  (though  it  does  serve  this 
purpose  for  the  actor),  but  it  is  valuable  (1)  because  it 
affords  an  orderly  and  well  arranged  group  of  exercises, 
(2)  because  the  movements  made  consciously  in  the  exer- 
cise may  become  a  part  of  the  speaker's  expressional 
equipment  and  take  place  spontaneously  during  delivery, 
and  (3)  because  it  will  offer  a  systematic  basis  for  the 
criticism  of  other  speakers.  But  before  we  take  up  the 
significance  of  particular  gestures,  it  will  be  well  to  out- 
line some  general  exercises  to  give  readiness  and  grace 
of  movement. 

2.     General  Principles  and  Exercises 

The  first  principle  to  note  is  that  wdien  a  gesture  is 
made,  there  is  a  combined  and  harmonious  movement  of 
the  whole  body,  the  arm,  and  the  hand.  The  contribu- 
tions of  all  these  three  are  most  evident  in  large,  sweep- 
ing gestures,  but  they  exist  in  varying  degrees  and 
proportions  in  all  gestures.  To  make  this  clear  and  also 
to  afford  a  helpful  exercise  we  recommend  the  use  of 
Indian  clubs. 

Observe  the  diagram,  which  gives  five  simple  move- 
ments to  be  tried  separately  at  first  and  then  in  various 
combinations.  If  you  have  no  clubs,  you  can  make  the 
movements  with  the  free,  open  hand.  In  that  case,  the 
palm  should  be  open  and  flexible  and  there  should  be  an 
easy  give  in  both  wrist  and  fingers.  Indeed,  after  prac- 
ticing with  the  clubs,  the  free  hand  exercise  should  be 
used  as  a  transition  to  gesture  execution. 


384 


EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


Fig-.  1. 


Exercise  A.  Stretching  the  hand  up  as  far  as  possible, 
describe  a  giant  circle  with  the  shoulder  as  the  center. 
Notice  the  slight  sway  or  accommodation  of  the  body. 
Notice  also  the  flexible  give  of  the  wrist.  The  weight  of 
the  club  makes  these  things  not  only  evident  but  inevit- 
able. Practice  without  the  club  and  get  the  same  sym- 
pathetic sway  of  the  body  and  turn  of  the  wrist.  Do  not 
stiffen  the  fingers  but  keep  them  fairly  limp.  Now  do  the 
exercise  with  both  arms  at  the  same  time,  first  with  both 
hands  crossing  in  front  together,  then  timed  so  that  while 
one  hand  is  stretched  out  to  the  side  the  otluM-  is  ci-ossiug 
in  front.  The  arms  then  pass  the  face  alternately.  In 
connection  with  gesture  work,  the  movcmcnis  should 
always  be  in  the  directions  indicated  by  the  arrows. 
Never  reverse. 

E.rercise  B.  St  retell  tlie  hand  up  as  far  as  possible 
obli(|uely  as  though  the  man  in  the  diagi'am  were  ti-ying 


GESTURES  385 

to  touch  the  letter  B.  Then  with  the  elbow  as  the  center 
make  a  movement  of  the  hand  that  describes  what  is 
roughly  a  circle.  Notice  the  accommodating  motion  of 
the  shoulder  and  upper  arm  as  well  as  the  sw^ay  of  the 
body.  The  last  is  less  in  this  exercise  than  in  Exercise  A. 
Practice  with  and  without  clubs,  with  one  hand  and  with 
both  as  in  Exercise  A.  Observe  the  greater  finger  and 
wrist  flexibility  needed  here. 

Exercise  C.  Begin  by  stretching  the  hand  out  to  the 
side  at  the  level  of  the  waist.  Describe  the  ellipse.  No- 
tice that  both  shoulder  and  elbow  come  into  equal  play. 
The  sway  of  the  body  is  slight  and  there  is  some  wrist 
and  finger  flexibility. 

Exercise  D.  This  is  the  most  valuable  of  all,  for  it 
calls  for  shoulder  and  elbow  rotation  and  movement  in 
all  parts  of  the  arm  as  well  as  a  high  degree  of  flexibility 
in  wrist  and  fingers.  Notice  how  the  back  of  the  wrist 
seems  to  lead  the  way  in  the  movement  and  see  that  the 
hand  on  the  return  movement,  down  and  toward  the 
body,  seems  to  float  palm  down,  while  on  the  outward 
sweep  it  is  palm  up.  Yet  each  position  of  hand  and 
fingers  melts  almost  imperceptibly  int'o  the  next. 

Exercise  E  is  similar  to  D,  but  it  is  in  the  lofty  plane 
and  calls  for  even  greater  hand  and  wrist  freedom,  with 
less  elbow  and  shoulder  action.  It  is  the  t^^aical 
''hurrah"  gesture. 

As  soon  a«  the  student  gets  a  sense  of  whole  bodily 
cooperation  and  flexibility,  the  clubs  should  be  used  less 
and  less  and  the  free  hand  movements  resorted  to  more 
and  more.  It  will  be  observed  that  we  cannot  call  a 
movement  wholly  hand,  or  wholly  forearm,  or  full  arm; 
one  may  predominate,  but  a  gesture  is  an  integral  part 
of  an  entire  body  change  and  attitude. 

Having  cared  for  the  larger  aspects,  we  may  give  a 
little  more  detailed  consideration  to  the  hand.  First 
consider  the  supine  hand,  witli  palm  up  (see  figure  2).    A 


386 


EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 


— Supine  Hand. 


gesture  terminating  with  the  pahn  in  this  position  is 
called  a  supine  gesture.  Observe  that  the  thumb  is  fairly 
free  of  the  palm  though  not 
sticking  out  at  right  angles. 
The  fingers  fall  naturally  as 
illustrated,  being  neither 
spread  wide  apart  nor  stuck 
rigidly  together.  Certainly  the 
palm  is  not  stiff.  The  whole 
appearance  is  of  ease  and  flexibility  with  no  suggestion 
of  cramp  or  stiffness. 

Some  students  have  a  tendency  to  stiffen  the  palm, 
cup  the  palm,  spread  the  fingers,  stick  out  the  thumb  too 
far,  or  turn  the  thumb  in.  The  following  exercise  is 
designed  to  overcome  such  defects  and  cause  the  hand 
to  fall  in  the  proper  disposition  at  the  stroke  of  a 
gesture : 

Exercise  F.  Hold  the  hand  before  you,  with  back  of 
the  wrist  up  and  the  finger  drooping  limply  (figure  3). 
Then  wring  vigorously  as  though  to  flick 
off  water.  Continue  this  for  some  time 
and  then  terminate  it  by  having  the  hand 
fall  in  the  supine  position.  Then  practice 
a  number  of  gestures  calling  for  the  supine 
hand,  with  appropriate  words  such  as: 

I — I  present  you  with  tMs. 
II — That  is  all  the  information  I  have. 
Ill — Behold,  how  simple. 

{Nute — Gesture  on  word  in  italics.) 

After  this,  repeat  exercise  I)  with  particular  attention 
upon  the  supine  hnnd  at  tlu'  part  of  the  curve  farthest 
from  the  body. 

If  the  free  movements  and  the  supine  hand  position, 
practiced  for  in  exercises  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F,  are  per- 
fected,   other    movements    and    liand    ])Ositions,    to    be 


GESTURES  387 

described  later,  will  in  most  cases  take  care  of  them- 
selves. 

3.     Significance  of  Gesture 

There  are  many  systems  which  are  supposed  to  give  an 
orderly  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  this  or  that  ges- 
ture. Most  of  them  are  suggestive  rather  than  scientific. 
Our  abstract  is  based  on  the  system  devised  by  Austin, 
and  published  in  his  Chironomia  in  1806. 

1.  Law  of  Particularity.  A  gesture  directly  in  front 
indicates  a  single  particular  thing;  one  slightly  to  the 
side  (oblique)  takes  in  several;  one  on  the  side  (lateral) 
includes  very  many.  Or  in  general,  front  gestures  are 
most  particular  while  lateral  gestures  are  most  general. 
Those  made  obliquely  backward  refer  to  what  is  remote 
in  time  or  space. 

Illustration:    Say 

I — ^'I  appeal  to  you,  sir,"  making  a  horizontal 
gesture  in  the  front  plane  (h.  o.,  see  figure  4)  with 
hand  supine. 

II — I  appeal  to  these  gentlemen  (gesture  hori- 
zontal oblique). 

Ill — I  appeal  to  the  whole  world  (gesture  hori- 
zontal lateral). 

IV — I  appeal  to  the  history  of  the  past  (gesture 
horizontal,  oblique  backward). 

This  law  holds  for  ascending  and  descending  as  well 
as  horizontal  gestures.  Using  the  descending  gesture 
(first  bringing  the  hand  up  in  the  oblique  plane  to  the 
level  of  the  chest  in  each  case  and  then  making  it  descend 
smartly  to  the  place  noted,  with  hand  supine)  practice 
these  three  examples  to  indicate  the  law  that  the  more 
particular  the  thought,  the  more  the  gesture  verges  to 
the  front  plane : 


388 


EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPExVKING 


a.  f.  ^ascending-   front,   a.  o.  -ascending  oblique,     a.  1.  =ascending   lateral, 
h.  f.  =  horizontal   front,  h.  o.  =  horizontal    oblique,    h.  l.=:horizontal  lateral. 
a.  t.  — descending  front,   d.  o.=desce7iding  oblique.     6.  \.=  descending  lateral. 
Gesture  can  also   be  made   oblique  backward   at   all   levels. 


I — I  stand  on  this  sinf/lc  principle  (descending- 
front)  . 

II — I  stand  on  tltrsc.  principles  (descending  ob- 
lique). 

Ill — I  stand  on  all  the  principles  of  law  and  justice 
(descending  lateral  with  sweep  throiigliout  the  words 
preceding  latr). 

2.  Law  of  the  Planes.  The  ascending  plane  is  said  to 
be  the  plane  of  the  spirit,  the  horizontal  plane  that  of 
the  mind,  and  the  descending  thai  of  ihc  hod//.     Aspira- 


GESTURES  ;389 

tions,  hopes,  ideals,  and  all  lofty  things  take  the  upper 
plane;  rational  and  rhetorical  utterances  take  the  hori- 
zontal; and  physical,  active,  and  colloquial  matters  go 
below.  Strong  assertions  tend  to  have  descending- 
gestures  because  there  is  associated  a  potentiality  of 
physical  enforcement.  Some  writers  have  said  that  all 
assertions  take  descending  gestures,  but  this  is  not 
universally  true;  there  is  merely  a  tendency  in  that 
direction,  for  often  we  find  assertions  accompanied  by 
other  gestures,  such  as  horizontal  front  with  index  finger. 
Examples: 

I — We  are  guided  by  a  single,  altruistic  ideal 
(lofty  and  particular,  takes  ascending  front). 

II — My  reason  approves  this  measure ;  let  me  offer 
it  to  you  for  your  judgment  (rational  and  particular, 
takes  horizontal  front;  repeat  gesture  in  this  illus- 
tration). 

Ill — To  do  this  is  customary  (colloquial  and  par- 
ticular, takes  descending  front).  If  it  is  a  simple 
colloquial  matter,  make  gesture  gently;  if  a  strong- 
assertion,  make  it  vigorously. 

This  last  may  take  horizontal  front  if,  in  saying 
the  words,  you  are  appealing  for  judicious  agree- 
ment. It  may  take  the  ascending  front  if  you  have 
in  mind  something  sacred  or  deserving  of  reverence 
in  the  custom. 

Examples  of  assertions  in  descending  plane.    Vigorous 
physical  action  possibilities  present. 

I — I  denounce  the  agreement  (descending  front). 
II — I  reject  the  proposals  (descending  oblique). 
Ill — I  despise  them  all  (descending-  lateral). 
IV — I  cast  them  all  into  utter  oblivion  (descend- 
ing oblique  back). 
Now  it  is  evident  that  the  planes  horizontal  to  the  floor 
and  those  perpendicular  to  the  floor  give,  at  their  points 


390  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

of  intersection,  tlie  names  of  the  gesture,  since  they 
designate  the  place  where  the  hand  comes  to  restj-  Thus 
the  front  plane  is  intersected  by  the  ascending  to  give 
ascending  front,  by  the  horizontal  to  give  horizontal 
front,  and  by  the  descending  to  give  descending  front. 
Thus  we  have  a  total  of  twelve  positions  for  the  right 
hand.  We  have  a  similar  twelve  for  the  left  and  the 
possibility  of  another  twelve  where  the  hands  are  used 
together  in  two-handed  gestures. 

4.     The  Making  of  a  Gestuke 

Thus  far  we  have  discussed  the  significance  of  gestures 
when  made,  but  now  we  must  go  into  the  details  of  each 
movement.  The  hand  does  not  shoot  out  abruptly  to  the 
desired  place.  There  is  a  preparatory  movement,  then 
the  execution  which  terminates  in  a  stroke  or  ictus,  and 
finally,  the  return  movement. 

Assume  the  normal  position  in  action  (see  page  109, 
Lesson  7)  with  the  two  hands  hanging  naturally  at  ease 
by  the  sides. 

(a)  The  Preparatory  Movement  consists  in  bringing 
the  hand  (palm  down)  up  to  about  the  level  of  the  chest, 
in  the  oblique  plane.  As  it  rises,  the  palm  slowly  turns, 
so  that  at  the  point  of  rest  the  palm  faces  toward  the  left 
and  the  back  of  the  hand  to  the  right. 

(b)  The  Execution  of  a  descending  front  gesture  car- 
ries the  hand  smartly  downward,  the  palm  turning  more 
upward  as  it  descends.  It  arrives  at  the  point,  descend- 
ing front. 

(c)  Ictus.  At  the  moment  it  reaches  that  point,  the 
fingers,  which  have  been  curled  in  somewhat,  snap  out 
to  the  true  supine  position  (see  figure  2).  This  stroke  or 
ictus  takes  place  on  the  accented  syllable  of  the  empha- 
sized word.    It  gives  character  and  force  to  the  gesture. 

(d)  The  Beturn  is  a  recovery  to  the  position  of  rest. 


GESTURES  391 

The  executionary  movement  for  all  gestures  begins 
where  the  preparatory  movement  ends  and  carries  the 
hand  down,  out,  or  up  to  the  desired  position.  But  the 
two  movements  are  continuous ;  that  is,  except  in  special 
cases  where  there  is  arrested  preparation.  In  the  hori- 
zontal lateral,  for  instance,  the  hand  does  not  rise  directly 
to  that  place,  but  passes,  in  x^reparation,  through  hori- 
zontal oblique. 

Now,  before  a  mirror,  practice  all  the  twelve  positions 
enumerated  on  page  388,  making  the  preparation  through 
horizontal  oblique. 

Remember  the  snap  of  wrist  and  fingers  (ictus),  whicli 
terminates  the  gesture  at  the  j^roper  place. 

3.  Law  of  Force.  Some  gestures  are  forceful  and 
some  weak,  to  indicate  energetic  or  mild  mental  attitudes. 
The  law  is  as  follows :  Gestures  are  forceful  in  propor- 
tion to  the  distance  through  which  they  pass,  the  speed 
of  their  execution,  and  the  muscular  tension  involved  in 
their  delivery, 

(a)  Distance.  This  means  great  preparation  up  to  the 
usual  point,  chest  high,  just  described,  or  even  higher. 
Make  the  assertion 

''I  will  never  submit," 

with  descending  front  gesture. 
Now  make  it  most  energetically  bringing  the  hand  in 
preparation,  on  the  words  I  will,  well  above  the  head. 
This  insures  a  greater  distance  of  executio-nary  move- 
ment. 

(b)  Speed.  Note  how  the  speed  increases  with  added 
vehemence. 

(e)  Tension.  Observe  the  tenseness  of  your  forearm, 
in  particular  as  the  ictus  is  given,  and  also  note  that  the 
whole  body  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  tense  also,  in  sympathy. 

By  way  of  contrast,  with  the  same  descending  front 
destination  of  the  hand,  say 

■  ''Isuhmit.'' 


392  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Note  that  the  preparation  is  almost  notliing;  there  is  a 
slow  movement  and  muscular  laxity.  Indeed  the  gesture 
consists  of  little  more  than  a  slow,  nerveless  turn  of  the 
hand.  Bodily  laxness  is  such  as  to  give  even  a  slight 
bend  at  the  hips. 

Now  practice  all  the  gestures  in  the  series,  with  the 
right  hand,  varying  the  distance  of  preparation,  the  speed 
of  execution  and  the  muscular  tension.  Practice  before 
the  mirror  and  observe  effects.  Remember  that  the 
whole  body  must  sway  with  the  gesture.  Read  once  more 
pages  107  to  111  of  Lesson  7. 

TWO  HAXDS 

Gestures  are  made  by  the  right  hand  as  a  rule  if  the 
speaker  is  right  handed.  Occasionally  the  left  is  used 
to  refer  to  something  on  that  side  or  to  give  variety  and 
contrast.    But  sometimes  a  two  handed  gesture  is  needed. 

Two  hands  do  not  give  greater  intensity,  they  rather 
give  greater  warmth.  Ilhey  add  affection,  whole-hearted- 
ness,  and  tenderness.    Give  these  two  examples : 

I — I  u-flcome  you,  sir,  to  this  hall  (right  hand  hori- 
zontal, front). 

II— I  welcome  you  with  affection  to  this  hall  (both 
hands  horizontal  front). 

Now  repeat  either  example  with  both  hands  horizontal 
oblique,  then  both  hands  horizontal  lateral.  Observe  as 
the  arms  are  flung  wider  apart  the  welcome  is  warmer 
and  more  whole-hearted. 

TIAXD    DISPOSITIONS. 

Thus  far  we  have  spoken  only  of  (a)  the  supine  hand 
(figure  2),  but  the  hand  may  be  disposed  in  other  ways 
than  this. 


GESTURES 


893 


(b)  The  Prone  Hand  (fii^ui'c 
5)  is  the  opposite  of  the  supiiio. 
The  supine  is  communicative, 
the  prone  repressive. 

Exam  pies: 


Prone    Hand. 


I — Speak  forth  freely  (supine,  horizontal  front). 
II — Keep  silent  (prone,  horizontal  front). 

The  supine  hand  is  cheerful,  the  prone  gloomy. 
Examples: 

I — Behold  the  happy  day  (both  hands,  liorizontal 
lateral  supine). 

II — How  sad  these  autumn  woods  (both  hands, 
horizontal  lateral  prone). 

The  supine  permits,  the  prone  refuses ;  the  supine  im- 
pels, the  prone  compels ;  the  supine  is  genial,  the  prone  is 
severe.  Of  course  all  ideas  of  physical  or  figurative  cov- 
ering or  concealing,  take  prone  gestures  in  appropriate 
planes. 

(c)  The  Vertieal  Hand  indicates  aversion,  repulsion, 
abhorrence. 

Examples: 

I — Forbid  it.  Almighty  God  (ascend- 
ing front  vertical). 

II — Out  of  my  sight,  rascal  (hori- 
zontal oblique  vertical). 

Ill — Dismiss  such  absurd  ideas 
(both  hands,  horizontal  oblique 
vertical). 

(d)  The  Clinehed  Fist  indicates  agres- 
siveness,  force,  vehemence,  and  resolve.  In 
descending  gestures  of  assertion,  it  is  stronger  than  the 
supine  hand  because  of  its  own  significance  and  also 
because  it  involves  more  muscular  tension. 


394  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

(e)   The  Index  Finger  designates  or  points  out  witli 
discrimination  either  physical  things  or  mental  things. 
Examples: 

I — Tluit  is  the  man  (horizontal  lateral  index). 
II — Observe   this   point   in   the   argument    (hori- 
zontal front  index). 

There  are  many  other  dispositions  of  the  hand,  such 
as  hands  clasped,  hands  applied  as  in  prayer,  hands 
folded,  and  arms  folded,  the  discussion  of  which  is  in  the 
dramatic  field  rather  than  the  o-ratorical.  Obviously  ges- 
tures which  are  pure  imitation  or  mimicry  follow  the 
laws  of  no  system. 

5.     Gestures  ix  Continuous  Delivery 

We  have,  so  far,  been  practicing  isolated  gestures.  In 
actual  delivery,  they  melt  one  into  the  other  impercep- 
tibly in  certain  passages,  and  in  others  they  occur  only 
at  long  intervals.  Much  advice  has  been  offered  for  and 
against  many  gestures.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  set  rule 
is  trustworthy.  What  is  true  of  one  individual  is  not 
true  of  another  in  effective,  unaffected  delivery,  and  what 
is  proper  for  a  certain  kind  of  passage  would  not  do  at 
all  for  one  of  opposite  nature.  If  you  are  naturally  ani- 
mated, buoyant,  and  full  of  bodily  energy,  you  will  have 
more  violent  outward  manifestations  of  emotional  states 
and  your  gestures  will  be  more  marked  and  more  numer- 
ous than  if  you  are  more  restrained.  A  similar  comment 
holds  for  different  passages  by  the  same  speaker.  Sim- 
ply be  natural  and  let  the  gestures  take  care  of  them- 
selves. Let  the  practice  make  its  impress  on  your 
general,  bodily  flexibility,  but  do  not  consciously  follow 
any  rule  of  gesture  during  delivery. 

In  practicing  a  series  of  gestures,  it  is  not  always 
necessary  to  have  a  recovery  for  each  and  a  full  ])repai'a- 


GESTUREH  895 

tion  for  its  successor,  Tlie  preparation  of  the  gestures 
of  a  series,  other  than  the  first,  springs  right  from  tlie 
ictus  place  of  its  predecessor.  Thus,  saying  "I  admired 
his  virtue,  mercy,  and  charity, ^^  one  makes  horizontal 
front  for  virtue,  horizontal  oblique  for  mercy,  and  hori- 
zontal lateral  for  charity,  and  the  preparatory  motion  of 
the  second  and  third  are  simply 
slight  curves  accomplished  by  the 
wrist  (see  figure  7). 

The  same  principle  would  hold 
if  the  second  and  third  gestures 
were  entirely  unlike  the  first. 
Take  the  following  passage  call- 
ing first  for  horizontal  oblique, 
from  which  a  small  preparatory  ^  .\l:est 

movement  is  made  in  transition  ^'^-  '• 

to    the    second    executionary    movement    to    ascending 
lateral : 

''I  place  these  things  before  you  and  may  the  Gods 

(prep.) .  .hor.  obi sustain  .    slight  prep asc.  lat. 

inspire  your  choice. ' ' 


Very  often  it  is  not  desirable  to  make  two  or  more 
gestures  or  even  to  repeat  a  single  one,  for  the  repeated 
emphasis  may  be  cared  for  by  what  is  known  as  an 
impulse  or  the  mere  repetition  of  the  ictus.  •  For  instance, 
in  the  sentence,  ''I  admired  his  virtue,  mercy,  and  char- 
ity," one  could  make  the  horizontal  oblique  gesture  on 
the  first  word  and  merely  repeat  the  ictus  on  the  other 
two.  Furthermore  such  a  sentence  can  be  cared  for  by 
a  single  gesture  sweeping,  in  execution,  through  the  three 
words  to  horizontal  lateral  with  its  ictus  on  the  last  of 
them.  In  each  case,  though,  there  is  a  different  meaning- 
conveyed.  The  three  separate  gestures  give  the  notion 
of  three  distinct  and  separate  virtues;  the  ictus  repeti- 
tion merely  repeats  stress  with  a  less  complete  demarca- 


396  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

tion  of  tlie  kinds  of  excellence,  while  the  single  sweeping 
gesture  groups  them  all  as  parts  of  a  single  admirable 
character. 

6.     Platform  Conduct 

While  addressing  the  audience,  do  not  keep  your  face 
directed  toward  one  spot  only;  talk  to  various  parts  of 
the  hall.  In  directing  your  remarks  here  and  then  there, 
do  not  simply  turn  the  head  but  turn  the  hips  so  that  the 
rotating  motion  starts  from  the  ankles  and  carries  the 
shoulders  with  it.  Of  course  this  rotation  does  not  take 
place  if  you  are  moving  about  at  the  time. 

This  brings  us  to  walking  on  the  platform.  Do  this  as 
freely  as  you  like  so  long  as  you  do  not  abuse  the  j^ractice 
and  attract  unfavorable  notice  to  yourself  by  the  amount 
or  nature  of  your  pacing  back  and  forth.  Never  turn 
your  back  to  the  audience.  In  walking  be  economical 
with  your  leg  movements — that  is,  make  only  necessary 
movements  to  cover  a  given  space.  Do  not  cross  the 
leg  one  in  front  of  the  other.  In  short,  do  not  attract 
attention  to  your  walk;  the  audience  is  there  to  attend 
to  your  thought. 

7.       COxNCLUSION 

Practice  all  the  gestures,  in  all  postures — first  quietly 
in  the  normal  position  with  weight  on  left  foot ;  then  in 
animation,  balancing  the  weight  on  the  forward,  right 
foot  (see  Lesson  7),  and  in  all  variations  of  foot  position 
and  balance.  Forward  gestures  should  not  cause  you  to 
topy)le  over  or  even  reach  out  and  stretch  awkwardly. 

Do  all  you  can  to  master  various  gestures  in  different 
attitudes  and  keep  constantly  at  the  fundamental  exer- 
cises, A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F  of  this  lesson.  It  will  make 
you  more  graceful  and  enable  your  body  to  speak  in  har- 
monv  with  vour  tongue.     Then  during  deliverv,  forget 


GESTURES  397 

all  about  these  things,  and  ])ay  attoiitioii  to  yonr  message 
and  your  audience. 


ASSKJN.MENT  OF    WORK 

The  written  exercises  in  tliis  entire  lesson  should  bo 
carefully  worked  out.  K.'ep  copies  of  tlie  written  exer- 
cises  in    vour    notebook. 


First  Day. — Review  Lesson  7  and  then  read  this  lesson  two 
or  three  times.    Answer  the  test  questions. 

S(co)td  Day. — Practice  exercises  A,  B,  C,  and  D  until  they  are 
well  mastered.  Practice  before  a  mirror  and  as  you  do  so 
keep  in  mind  what  was  said  on  page  385  about  the  coml)ined 
movement  of  the  whole  body. 

Third  Day. — Continue  the  other  exorcises  and  take  up  P]  and  F. 
Be  sure  of  your  hand  flexibility.  Then  add  the  following 
exercise : 

Exercise  G.  Stand  in  the  position  taken  by  a  fencer  just 
before  he  makes  a  thrust.  This  is  firmly  on  both  feet  with  a 
distance  of  about  twenty-four  inches  between  them.  Then 
make  a  forward  thrust,  keeping  the  left  hand  by  the  trouser 
leg  and  using  the  right  hand  as  follows : — Describe  the  fig- 
ure 8  as  in  exercise  D,  only  time  the  thrust  so  that  if 
comes  when  the  hand  is  farthest  from  the  body.  This  is 
a  .sort  of  thrust  with  a  flourish.  Continue  this  with  varying 
degrees  of  forward  plunge.    It  is  a  good  exercise  in  balance.^ 

Fourth  Day. — Practice  all  the  examples  given  under  the  three 
laws  and  make  up  as  many  more  examples  of  your  own. 
Also  practice  with  the  dispositions  of  the  hands  other  than 
supine. 

Fifth  Day. — Take  a  selection  from  one  of  the  great  orators  and 
write  it  out  with  a  good  space  between  the  lines.  Then 
under  the  words  which  would  naturally  be  delivered  with  a 
gesture,  mark,  in  red  ink,  the  gesture  you  think  appropriate. 
I'se  the  designations  used  in  this  lesson ;  for  example,  r.  h., 
hor.  lat.  sup.  means  right  hand,  horizontal  lateral  supine. 
Think  out  whether  an  involuntary  impulse  due  to  settled 
reflex  or  emotion  would  take  place  here  or  there,  or  whether 
a  deliberate  gesture  would  be  made.  Determine  whether  a 
series  would  be  used,  repetition  or  impulse.     Send  this  in. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  tliis  lesson.  They 
are  sug-f/efitive  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  pinnciples,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  appeal  to  the  ear  and  appeal  to  the 
eye  ? 

2.  Give  the  two  general  causes  of  gesture  and  the  two  sub- 
divisions of  the  more  primitive  cause.     Do  animals  gesticulate  ? 

3.  What  is  the  most  general  principle  of  motion  in  all  ges- 
tures ?  Can  we  distinguish  various  body  parts  with  the  different 
prominence  in  each  gesture?  Does  the  whole  body  enter  into 
every    gesture  ? 

4.  Can  you  do  exercise  A  easily  ?  What  muscles  seem 
most  exercised  by  it?  Do  we  ever  make  gestures  of  this  sort, 
or  is  the  exercise  of  indirect  benefit  only? 

5.  Do  you  see  any  progressive  plan  of  assistance  in  the  work 
of  exercises  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E  ?  What  is  the  element  of  increas- 
ing help? 

6.  What  about  the  wrist  movement  and  hand  flexibility  in 
these  gestures?  What  about  the  co-operation  of  body,  whole  arm. 
forearm,  wrist,  and  hand? 

7.  Do  you  make  the  supine  gestures  easily  Avith  the  hand 
])roperly  disposed  ?  Have  you  any  hand  difficulty  ?  Does  exer- 
cise F  seem  to  help  ? 

Always  prac- 
tice before  a  mirror. 

8.  Name  the  twelve  positions,  using  the  intersection  of  the 
three  horizontal  planes  with  the  four  vertical  as  a  means  of 
designation. 

9.  Give  the  law  of  particularity. 

10.  Give  the  law  of  planes. 

11.  Give  the  law  of  force.     Can  you,  from  these  three  laws, 
construct  a  fairly  comprehensive  system  of  gestures? 

12.  What  are  the  parts  of  a  gesture?     Whicli  part  will  give 
the  gesture  precision  if  properly  timed? 

13.  What  is  the  significance  of  two-handed  gestui-es  as  dis- 
tinguished  from  the   one-handed? 

14.  Contrast  the  supine  and  the  projie  hand. 

15.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  vertical   liand  .'     Of  the 
index  finger?    Of  the  clenched  fist? 

16.  In  continuous  delivery,  does  every  gestiuv  have  a  full 
preparation?     What  is  the  best  procedure? 

17.  Can  you  give  a  brief  sunnnary  of  good  i)Ia1f()nn  conduct? 

3!)8 


LESSON  22 

HYGIENE  FOR  PUBLIC  SPEAKERS 

The  subject  of  liygiene  embraces  all  the  means  which 
appertain  to  the  preservation  of  health.  Practical 
hygiene  uses  every  agency  that  will  maintain  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  body,  w^ard  off  disease,  and  prevent  dete- 
rioration. It  stops  only  at  the  threshold  of  medicine  and 
surgery.  Hygiene  is  thus  of  interest  to  everyone,  but 
especially  to  the  speaker,  whose  effectiveness  depends 
very  directly  upon  his  physical  welfare.  -But  each  calling 
has  dangers  peculiar  to  itself.  The  miner  who  goes  into 
the  depths  of  earth  takes  precaution  against  noxious 
gases  while  the  farmer  on  the  prairie  wears  high  leather 
boots  as  a  protection  against  the  fangs  of  rattlesnakes. 
The  voice-user  also  has  peculiar  dangers  against  which  he 
must  guard.  We  shall  discuss  aspects  of  general  hygiene 
which  are  of  interest  to  the  speaker,  and  also 'special 
hygiene  peculiar  to  him  alone. 

1.     Mental  Hygiene 

All  of  us  are  affected  in  the  production  of  ideas  by  our 
habits  of  mind,  so  that  any  one  line  of  thinking  persisted 
in  influences  all  others.  It  is  impossible  for  a  man  to 
live  continually  in  a  realm  of  noble  thought  without 
approaching  each  problem  in  a  noble  manner.  On  the 
other  hand,  base  thoughts  color,  and  are  reflected  in, 
whatever  is  expressed.  Every  man  should  be  guided  by 
these  truths  and  inhilnt  at  the  outset  undesirable  tenden- 
cies of  the  mind  and  stimulate  activities  in  worthy 
directions. 

399 


400  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

The  public  speaker  must  be  more  watchful  of  liis 
mind's  cleanliness  and  health  than  others,  for  his  speech 
will  reveal  what  is  often  concealed  by  men  of  other  call- 
ings. Not  only  is  it  true  that  no  speaker  can  put  into  his 
speech  what  is  not  in  his  soul,  but  it  is  also  true  that  he 
cannot  keep  his  soul  out  of  his  speech. 

Cheerfulness  is  also  necessary.  Do  not  worry  or  let 
irritable  spells  hold  sway.  Concentrate  on  each  task 
mental  and  physical;  finish  it,  and  then  drop  it  entirely 
when  the  next  one  comes  up.  Do  not  brood  over  one 
thing  when  the  mind  should  be  occupied  with  another, 
resting,  or  engaged  in  recreation. 

Mental  rest  is  as  important  as  bodily  rest.  Do  not 
stick  to  work  of  preparation  or  research  when  you  are 
''stale."  The  I'esult  will  not  pay  you.  Furthermore,  do 
not  continue  preparing,  reading,  and  fixing  outlines  in 
the  mind  up  to  the  last  minute  before  speaking.  It  is 
better  to  stop  work  and  take  a  walk  or  drive.  Get  out 
in  the  fresh  air  and  let  the  mind  quietly  assimilate  what- 
ever study  has  brought  to  it,  even  if  the  study  is  not  so 
complete  as  you  could  desire.  The  speech  will  be  better 
than  one  for  which  you  have  crammed  up  to  the  moment 
of  delivery. 

2.     General  Physical  Hygiene 

Because  we  discussed  mental  hygiene  in  a  section  by 
itself  we  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  mind  and  body  are 
separate,  but  rather  that  the  subject-matter  of  the  mind 
may  he  considered  separately.  The  vigor  and  energy 
of  mental  operations  depend  directly  on  the  health  of  the 
body.  Therefore  the  ability  of  a  speaker  to  work  up  to 
his  best  intellectual  standard  is  partly,  at  least,  deter- 
mined by  his  licaltli. 

Then  also  the  insti-ument  through  which  a  s])('aker 
communicates  is  his  bodv.     That  bodv  nnist  l)e  in  n'ood 


HYGIENE  401 

t'oiuUtion  or  it  cannot  adequately  convey  the  thoughts  of 
the  mind.  One  who  is  ill  or  physically  weary  shows  his 
weakness  in  his  listless  voice.  Tones  produced  through 
a  sore  throat  or  by  vocal  cords  abused  by  misuse  in 
strained  breath  control,  cause  the  audience  to  suffer  in 
sympathy  with  the  speaker.  Many  things  affect  the 
voice.  Reserving  disease  for  a  brief  remark  (as  befits 
one  not  a  physician,  speaking  to  laymen),  we  shall  con- 
sider digestion,  clothing,  rest,  breathing  and  phonation, 
bathing,  stimulants,  mouth  prophylaxis,  and  the  speak- 
er's habits. 

3.     Digestion 

The  problem  of  nutrition  and  digestion  is  an  individual 
one.  Each  must  determine  for  himself  what  his  system 
needs  and  what  he  can  digest.  If  the  self-made  rules  are 
violated,  or  if  for  some  other  reason  indigestion  takes 
place,  a  man's  speaking  ability  will  surely  be  impaired. 
The  uncomfortable  feeling  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach 
keeps  the  mind  annoyed  while  the  distension  of  the  organ 
itself  interferes  with  breathing.  By  all  means  watch 
your  digestion  and,  at  the  first  signs  of  trouble,  consult 
a  physician  or  administer  your  own  home  remedies.  Do 
not  continue  eating  with  utter  disregard  for  consequences 
which  your  experience  tells  you  are  sure  to  follow. 

Even  when  the  digestion  is  good,  do  not  eat  large 
meals  before  speaking,  and  when  possible  let  a  period  of 
time  elapse  between  the  meal  and  the  speech.  Just  after 
a  meal,  the  stomach  is  fullest  and  the  lung  capacity  least. 
Then  also  the  action  of  the  diaphragm  is  hampered,  and 
the  smallest  movement  causes  distress.  The  blood  is 
down  below  and  not  up  at  the  throat  and  brain. 

We  recollect  a  trip  with  a  college  debating  team  to  a 
distant  university.  Just  before  the  debate,  the  hosts 
invited  the   guests   to   a  good  dinner,  but  the   faculty 


402  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

advisor  was  strict  in  the  limits  of  consumption  he 
placed  upon  the  hungry  heroes  of  the  forum.  He  also 
banned  French  fried  potatoes  and  insisted  on  the  more 
digestible  baked  form.  Every  speaker  is  not  accom- 
panied at  all  times  by  a  faculty  advisor,  but  he  would 
do  well  to  follow  the  kind  of  suggestions  given  to  the 
college  boys.  As  an  important  speech  approaches,  eat 
sparingly,  even  of  nutritious  and  easily  digested  food.  If 
you  are  to  speak  after  a  dinner,  do  not  indulge  in  all  the 
courses.  Eemember  that  the  ideal  for  singers  is  to  put 
four  hours  between  the  last  meal  and  a  performance ;  the 
ideal  for  a  speaker  calls  for  a  two-hour  interval.  If  you 
cannot  live  up  to  the  ideal,  approach  it  as  nearly  as  you 
can. 

4.     Clothing 

A  discussion  of  clothing  may  well  have  many  subdivi- 
sions, but  the  hygienic  aspects  are  two,  namely,  the  influ- 
ence of  clothing  on  bodily  temperature  and  its  influence 
on  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  It  is  difficult  to  say 
whether  an  individual  should  dress  heavily  or  lightly. 
If  begun  early  in  life,  it  is  best  to  wear  very  little  clothing 
and  make  a  minimum  difference  between  summer  weight 
and  winter  weight.  This  brings  about  hardiness  and 
resistance  to  colds — the  great  bugaboo  of  speakers.  Yet 
like  diet,  it  is  an  individual  matter.  One  thing,  however, 
is  certain,  the  body  should  not  be  subjected  to  extremes 
of  temperature  by  sudd(Mi  changes  in  clothing  of  varying 
weight  and  cut. 

A  speaker  wearing  an  overcoat  and  entering  a  warm 
hall  should  remove  tlie  coat  on  entering.  Similarly,  after 
an  address,  when  the  throat  has  been  exercised,  be  care- 
ful to  protect  it  from  sudden  change  when  leaving  the 
building.  Especially  at  night,  in  the  open  air,  protect 
the  throat  and  chest. 


HYGIENE  403 

Conceiniiii*,'  constriction  we  can  say  that  the  clothing 
at  no  part  of  the  body  should  be  so  tiglit  as  to  interfere 
wit] I  tlie  superficial  circulation  or  the  mechanism  of 
breathing.  Obviously  the  lacing  of  women  violates  both 
these  rules.  Men  usually  dress  so  that  the  abdomen  and 
lower  chest  are  free  and  the  diajjhragm  can  do  full,  pow- 
erful duty.  The  point  of  compression  in  their  dress  is 
usually  at  the  throat.  Stand-up  collars  are  bad.  They 
not  only  interfere  with  the  circulation  and  delay  the  vital- 
izing of  the  tissues  in  the  capillaries,  but  they  annoy  the 
speaker  and  hamper  phonation.  Turn-down  collars  suffi- 
ciently large  are  better.  With  full  dress,  a  fairly  open 
and  amply  large  standing  collar  is  a  good  compromise. 

In  connection  with  this  topic,  we  may  warn  the  speaker 
against  constriction  which  results  from  bending  the  head 
to  read  notes  on  a  table  or  reader's  desk.  Such  bending, 
with  its  accompanying  compression  at  the  throat,  inter- 
feres with  the  circulation  and  is  hard  on  the  breathing. 
If  notes  must  be  consulted,  they  should  be  held  where 
they  can  be  easily  seen  without  bending  the  head.  If 
physical  conditions  on  the  platform  are  such  that  some 
bending  is  unavoidable,  bend  from  the  Avaist  so  that  the 
posture  of  the  torso  is  kept  correct  as  described  in  Les- 
son 7.  There  are  not  only  hygienic  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  following  this  advice,  but  aesthetic  gains 
as  well. 

5.     Rest 

The  speaker  must  have  plenty  of  rest.  Both  his  body 
and  his  mind  must  come  refreshed  to  his  task.  There 
are  men  who  seem  to  work  incessantly,  but  they  are  pay- 
ing for  it  in  some  way.  Best  results  cannot  be  obtained 
by  working  continuously  without  rest.  On  this  point, 
Bishop  Buckley  said,  ''AVhen  an  important  address  is  to 
be  delivered,  the  orator  should  begin  the  special  care  of 
his   body   at   least  twenty-four  hours   before   the   time. 


404  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Henry  Ward  Beeclier,  addressing  the  Clerical  Union  of 
Brookljai,  stated  that  this  was  his  invariable  practice, 
and  that,  though  he  had  a  powerful  constitution,  he  made 
it  a  point  to  eat  less  and  rest  more  as  Sunday  approached. 
On  his  lecture  tours  he  was  in  the  habit  of  taking  a  short 
nap  just  before  going  on  the  platform." 

Similar  to  rest,  in  its  effect,  is  plenty  of  fresh  air. 
It  is  the  custom  of  many  clergymen  to  prepare  their 
sermons  during  the  early  part  of  the  week,  to  spend  all 
Saturday  afternoon  in  the  open  air,  and  on  Sunday  to 
rest,  except  when  in  the  pulpit.  This  is  an  excellent 
s-cheduie,  for  it  suspends  concentration  on  the  speech 
some  time  before  delivery,  it  gives  the  body  the  benefit 
of  outdoor  exercise,  and  it  brings  needed  rest. 

Long  walks  are  good  for  the  public  speaker.  They 
afford  a  fine  opportunity  to  meditate,  to  obtain  the  sanest 
views  of  his  subject,  and  at  the  same  time  to  exercise  in 
the  open  air.  However,  long  walks  that  tire  should  not 
immediately  precede  a  speech. 

At  night  the  window  should  be  thrown  wide  open,  so 
that  plenty  of  fresh  air  can  come  into  the  bed-room.  The 
body  should  l^e  covered  enough  to  prevent  ill  effects  from 
cold. 

().     Breathing  and  Phonation 

If  the  breathing  is  poorly  controlled,  ill  effects  will 
follow.  The  tones  produced  will  be  bad  and  the  vocal 
cords  as  well  as  the  pharynx  may  suffer  from  congestion. 
It  is  very  important  that  the  breathing  exercises  sug- 
gested in  Lesson  7  be  completely  mastered.  Indeed,  good 
deep  breathing  will  not  only  prevent  voice  and  other  ail- 
ments  but  may  help  to  cure  them  when  they  exist. 

In  producing  tones,  the  vocal  cords  should  be  used 
for  sound  production  and  nothing  else.  They  nuist  not 
be  employed  as  trap  doors  to  regulate  the  emission  of 


HYGIENE  405 

Mir.  From  the  wind  pipe  up,  all  tiie  agencies  of  speech 
sliould  be  flexible  and  relaxed.  If  a  feeling  of  constric- 
tion is  experienced  in  the  throat,  the  tone  is  being  badly 
produced  and  the  vocal  cords  abused.  Relax  immediately 
and  keep  the  mind  on  the  diaphragm.  That  is  where 
the  effort  should  be  concentrated.  As  the  air  comes  up 
against  the  cords  they  should  move  freely  and  lightly  to 
produce  the  vocal  murmur  of  varying  pitches.  Persist- 
ence in  incorrect  phonation  means  the  destruction  of  the 
speaker's  voice. 

When  the  throat  is  tired,  stop  talking.  Fatigue  is  the 
warning,  and  to  refuse  to  heed  it  means  punishment. 
When  there  is  inflammation  of  the  throat  or  larynx,  do 
not  talk.  Consult  a  doctor  and  rest  until  the  speaking- 
apparatus  is  normal  again.  If  you  must  deliver  a  speech 
with  the  throat  in  bad  condition,  a  good  temporary  help 
will  be  a  gargle  of  luke-warm  water  w4th  equal  parts,  of 
powdered  alum  and  salt.  Dissolve  in  a  tumbler  of  water 
as  much  of  each  as  could  be  put  on  a  dime.  The  taste 
of  this  mixture  is  bad,  but  it  will  give  temporary  relief, 
until  the  speech  is  ended  and  you  can  get  to  a  physician. 

There  should  be  no  unnecessary  straining  of  the  vocal 
cords  by  shouting,  cheering,  and  prolonged  singing. 
Often  there  is  temptation  to  join  in  rollicking  songs, 
where  all  sing  at  the  top  of  the  voice.  This  may  be  fun, 
but  it  is  a  kind  of  fun  which  the  singer  must  forego.  Con- 
gregational singing  is  usually  bad  in  proportion  to  the 
enthusiasm  of  those  who  join  in.  If  the  speaker  is  also 
a  trained  singer  and  thoroughly  understands  the  use  of 
the  singing  voice,  he  can  use  his  own  judgment  with  good 
effect. 

7.     Bathing 

The  speaker  should  keep  his  skin  in  good  condition  by 
frequent  baths.  Warm  baths  with  the  proper  precautions 
against  cold  are  necessary  to  cleanse  the  pores.    After 


406  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

each  bath  and  every  morning  the  speaker  should  sponge 
the  throat  and  chest  with  cold  water.  It  is  well  to  use 
salt  in  this  and  in  such  cold  plunges  as  may  be  desired 
from  time  to  time.  A  cold  plunge  every  morning  is  excel- 
lent if  you  can  stand  it.  Remember  though,  it  is  more 
valuable  for  its  tonic  effects  than  for  its  cleansing- 
properties. 

8.     Drinking  and  Smoking 

The  speaker  should  neither  drink  alcoholic  liquors  nor 
smoke.  Though  this  is  well  known,  but  few  live  in 
accordance  with  these  suggestions.  Alcoholic  drinks  are 
bad  for  the  system  and  especially  bad  for  the  throat  with 
its  delicate  mucous  membrane.  Whoever  uses  them  must 
understand  that  for  the  pleasure  he  gets  from  the  indul- 
gence he  will  pay  in  well  being.  Just  before  speaking, 
such  drinking  is  especially  bad.  It  is  injurious  to  the 
physical  mechanism  of  speech  and  even  the  apparent 
mental  stimulation  is  of  an  undesirable  kind.  One  so 
stimulated  may  acquire  a  sort  of  false  brilliancy,  but  he 
loses  more  in  judgment. 

The  drinking  of  tea  and  coffee  is  a  dietary  question 
wliicli  must  be  settled  by  the  individual.  Both  beverages 
are  mild  stimulants  which  can  be  endured  by  some  but 
not  by  others. 

Smoking  is  bad  for  the  speaker.  It  has  a  tendency  to 
parch  the  throat  and  also  to  act  unfavorably  on  the  nerv- 
ous system  and  the  vocal  cords.  Particularly  bad  is  the 
smoking  of  cigars,  x^ipes,  and  cigarettes  after  the  west- 
ern fashion.  The  eastern  w^orshipper  of  Lady  Nicotine 
wisely  filters  his  hot  smoke  through  water.  Further- 
more, he  uses  mild  tobacco.  .A  speaker  who  enjoys  smok- 
ing and  who  simply  refuses  to  give  up  the  practice  might 
do  well  to  buy  a  Turkish  hookah.  This  style  of  pipe 
reduces  the  evils  of  smoking  to  a  minimum. 


HYGIENE  407 

We  may  consider  here  the  traditional  pitcher  of  ice 
water  on  the  speaker's  stand.  It  ought  to  be  abolished; 
more  harm  than  good  is  done  by  the  "sip  of  cold  water." 
The  throat  in  action  should  not  receive  a  dash  of  cold 
water.  If  there  is  congestion,  as  indicated  by  the  hot 
and  parched  feeling,  the  cold  douche  will  simply  insure 
greater  congestion  when  the  reaction  follows  its  appli- 
cation. 

To  insure  against  dry  mouth  and  throat,  many  things 
have  been  suggested.  Possibly  the  chew^ing  of  slippery 
elm  will  do  some  good;  it  can  do  no  harm.  Most  pre- 
pared lozenges  are  bad  for  the  stomach.  A  good  demul- 
cent to  sip  can  be  made  with  a  little  tragacanth  g-um  in 
water.  But  if  this  be  used,  take  it  before  beginning  to 
speak.  It  is  a  descent  from  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous 
for  a  speaker  to  stop  in  the  middle  of  his  address  to  take 
a  drink. 

9.       MoUTII    HVGIENE 

The  mouth  should  be  kept  as  aseptic  and  clean  as 
possible.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  diluted  with  water  is 
good  to  use  as  a  gargle  and  a  mouth  wash.  The  follow- 
ing advice  given  by  Doctor  Mills  in  his  book  on  A^oice 
Production  (page  262)  may  also  be  followed. 

As  the  speaker  and  singer  must  often  practice  their  art  in  an 
atmosphere  that  is  far  from  pure,  they  will  do  well  to  carry  out 
in  a  routine  war  some  sort  of  mouth  toilet  on  their  return 
home  and  the  next  morning.  Various  simple  mouth  and  throat 
washes  may  be  used,  such  as  (1)  water  with  a  little  common 
salt  dissolved  in  it  (2)  water  containing  a  few  drops  of  carbolic 
acid — just  enough  to  be  distinctly  tasted;  (3)  Avater  containing 
listerine;  (4)  either  of  the  last  two  with  the  addition  of  a  pinch 
of  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  a  teacupful  of  the  Huid.  when  there  is 
a  tendency  to  catarrh. 

Of  course  the  teeth  should  be  brushed  after  each  meal, 
before  retiring  and  on  getting  up  in  the  morning.  Then 
also  the  speaker  ^liould  go  once  each  year  to  the  dentist 


408  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

to  have  his  teeth  examined.  A  little  work  done  by  the 
dentist  in  time  will  save  a  great  deal  of  trouble  later. 
All  this  care  of  the  teeth  and  mouth  is  most  necessary, 
for  bacteria  multiply  rapidly,  and  affections  of  the 
mouth,  tonsils,  and  throat  have  a  powerful  effect  upon 
the  speaking'  voice. 

10.     The  Speaker's  Habits 

The  instrument  of  the  public  speaker  is  his  body.  He 
should  take  the  greatest  care  of  it  possible.  To  keep  in 
the  necessary  robust  health  his  habits  should  be  regular. 
He  should  follow  the  old  rule  of  "earlj^  to  bed  and  early 
to  rise."  We  all  know  the  story  of  how  Ben  Franklin, 
when  being  entertained  by  the  most  distinguished  peo- 
ple of  France,  at  the  proper  time  each  evening,  would 
rise  and  excuse  himself  saying,  ''It  is  now  my  usual  hour 
to  retire."  While  such  independence  is  not  always  tact- 
ful or  possible,  an  approximation  to  Franklin's  regu- 
larity in  early  sleep  is  desirable. 

Regularity  and  simplicity  in  eating  should  also  charac- 
terize the  speaker.  In  short,  a  simple,  honest,  uncrowded 
life  should  be  his  if  he  is  to  keep  in  perfect  condition. 
This  entails  the  sacrifice  of  many  pleasures  and  indul- 
gences, but  the  reward  is  worth  the  sacrifice. 

.Assignment  of  Work 

I'lic  written  exercises  in  tliis  entire  lesson  should  be 
careful ly  worked  out.  Keeji  copies  of  tlie  written  exer- 
cises ill   voiir   notebook. 


First  Day. — Read  the  lesson  through  twleo  and  then  test 
yourself  with  the  (luestions.  Have  you.  in  the  past,  violated 
an.y  of  the  rules  of  hygiene  given  in  this  lesson  ?  Are  thei-e 
any  with  whieh  you  do  not  agree? 

Second  Day. — Study  the  lesson  again  carefully,  making  a 
tabulated  summary  of  the  advice  given.  Then  make  out  a 
weekly  schedule  for  a  speaker,  assuming  that  he  is  to  begin 


HYGIENE  409 

preparing  the  speech  on  Simday  and  delivef  it  the  follow- 
ing Saturday.  Assume  that  he  is  employed  from  eight  to 
four  thirty  every  week  day  excei:)t  Saturday,  when  he  stops 
at  twelve  o 'clock.  ]\Iake  out  the  daily  schedule,  from  rising 
to  retiring,  in  great  detail,  even  to  the  Innishing  of  the  teeth. 

Third  Day.— Go  back  to  Lesson  7  and  practice  all  the  breathing 
exercises  most  carefully.  Then  combine  the  deep  rhythmic 
breathing  with  exercises  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E  of  the  last  lesson. 

Fourth  Day. — Take  the  outline  of  a  speech  which  j^ou  have  pre- 
pared and  go  for  a  long  walk.  While  walking,  develop  the 
speech  several  times,  talking  silently.  This  is  a  good  ex- 
ercise in  preparation  for  a  speech  provided  it  is  not  done 
innnediately  before  the  delivery  in  public.  You  will  notice 
that  the  throat  is  a  bit  tired  after  this  exercise  just  as 
though  you  had  been  actually  speaking.  That  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  a  walk  of  this  kind  should  not  precede  the 
address  proper. 

Fifth  Day. — Review  once  more  the  Reflection  Hour  on  page  146 
of  Lesson  8. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  suggestive  merely,  dealing  largely  Avith  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  aic  to  he  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  hygiene,  general  hygiene,  and  special 
iiygiene  ? 

2.  Give  your  definition  of  mental  hygiene  and  tell  why  the 
speaker  must  give  it  more  than  usual  care. 

3.  Is  mental  hygiene  in  any  Avay  related  to  the  physical? 
Is  physicar  welfare  related  to  mental  efficiency? 

4.  Can  any  general  rules  of  diet  he  formulated  which  will 
be  of  service  to  the  speaker? 

5.  What  are  the  rules  concerning  quantity  of  food  which 
may  usually  be  followed  by  the  speaker? 

6.  What  are  the  two  important  things  in  dress  that  interest 
the  speaker? 

7.  What  is  to  be  said  about  the  effect  on  a  speaker  of  con- 
sulting notes  on  a  table  or  desk? 

8.  Give  the  inference  you  draw  from  Bishop  Buckley's 
statement  about  Beecher.  What  other  thing,  besides  rest,  is' of 
importance  to  keep  the  speaker  fresh  and  vigorous? 

9.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  vocal 
cords  should  be  used  for  the  production  of  sound  only? 

10.  What  course  should  a  speaker  pursue  when  he  feels 
fatigued?    What  must  he  do  when  the  throat  is  sore? 

n.  Has  shouting  or  singing  any  bad  effect  on  the  speaker's 
voice  ? 

12.  Tell  the  respective  uses  of  the  warm  bath,  the  cold  bath, 
and  the  cold  spray  or  douche  of  the  chest. 

13.  AVhat  effect  have  alcoholic  drinks  on  the  mind  during  a 
speech  if  taken  immediatelv  before?  What  effect  have  thev  on 
the  throat? 

14.  What  effect  has  smoking  on  the  throat  of  the  speaker? 
What  is  the  most  harmless  form  of  smoking  ? 

15.  What  do  you  think  of  the  "sip  of  cold  water"  during  the 
delivery  of  an  address? 

16.  Give  a  brief  summary  of  the  various  precautions  to 
keep  the  mouth  clean. 

17.  Can  you  give  a  few  harmless  mouth  washes?  Do  you 
know  of  others  put  u])  for  commercial  i)in'poses  and  sol<l  under 
patent  names? 

18.  Give  a  brief  summary  of  the  ideal  regulation  of  the  daily 
life  of  a  speaker. 

410 


LESSON  23 

PRACTICAL  SPEECH  DIRECTIONS  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

There  are  many  occasions  on  which  one  may  have  to 
speak  in  this  or  that  capacity.  While  we  cannot  possibly 
list  all  these,  there  are  certain  ones  of  importance  which 
may  well  be  selected  for  treatment.  We  shall,  at  first, 
treat  those  speeches  connected  with  mass  meetings  and 
conventions,  presenting  samples  of  addresses  to  be  made 
when  one  must  act  (1)  as  organizer  of  a  meeting,  (2)  as 
temporary  chairman,  (3)  as  the  permanent  chairman  or 
spokesman  of  the  meeting.  Then  we  shall  take  up 
speeches  from  the  floor  and  later  the  addresses  of  toast- 
master  and  others  at  a  dinner.  Last  of  all  we  shall  con- 
sider the  set  speeches  of  the  regular  "orators"  of  special 
occasions. 

Calling  a  Meeting 

Meetings  of  unorganized  bodies  or  mass  meetings  of 
citizens  for  discussion,  are  usually  called  together  by 
public  notice  or  general  invitation.  At  the  time  of  meet- 
ing, someone  interested  in  the  object  at  hand  must  take 
the  initiative  in  speech.  He  may  do  one  of  two  things, 
either  sketch  briefly  in  an  unbiased  manner  the  reason  for 
the  coming  together,  or  simply  say,  "Will  the  meeting 
please  come  to  order?  I  shall  be  pleased  to  hear  nomina- 
tions for  temporary  presiding  officer."  If  those  present 
are  unacquainted  and  the  enterprise  is  new,  tlie  introduc- 
tory remarks  are  necessary  and  may  be  followed  by  a 
■411 


412  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

motion  for  iioniinatioiis.  If  those  present  are  acquainted 
and  the  purposes  of  the  gathering  fairly  well  known,  the 
self-appointed  officer  will  show  better  taste  and  tact  by 
expressing  no  views.  The  following  is  a  sample  of  the 
brief  explanation  to  be  given  when  necessary: 

Fellow  citizens;  this  meeting'  whs  called  in  order  that  the  tax 
payers  of  the  community  might  join  in  an  expression  of  their 
attitude  toward  the  proposed  change  in  the  public  lighting  system. 
As  you  have  no  doubt  heard,  the  city  authorities  are  planning  to 
discontinue  illumination  by  gas  and  install  electricity.  The  tax- 
payers are  interested  because  the  improvement  must  be  financed 
by  assessments  upon  them.  It  is  therefore  desirable  that  we  or- 
ganize our  opinion  for  presentation  at  the  general  hearing  on  the 
subject  to  be  held  next  :\Ionday  at  the  City  Hall.  My  purpose 
is  not  to  go  into  the  details  of  the  initial  cost  of  this  new  public 
work  which  must  be  met  by  us,  nor  shall  I  discuss  future  serv- 
ice and  running  expenses.  ]\fy  wish  is  merely  to  call  you  together 
so  that  you  may  discuss  these  matters  as  you  see  fit.  jMany  here  . 
have  made  a  study  of  the  details  of  the  proposed  system  of  light- 
ing, and  we  shall  be  glad  to  hear  from  them  when  the  meeting 
has  been  properly  organized.  ]\Iay  I  now  receive  nominations  for 
the  position  of  temporary  president  of  this  gathering! 

Duties  of  the  Chairman 

If  the  meeting  is  an  isolated  one  and  there  is  no  expec- 
tation of  further  meetings,  the  president  is  not  called 
temporary  president,  but  simply  chairman.  When  a  tem- 
porary presiding  officer  is  chosen,  it  is  expected  that  he 
will  preside  at  the  first  meeting,  during  which  the  perma- 
nent officers  of  the  organization  or  convention  will  be 
nominated  and  elected.  After  liis  election,  the  temporary 
president  takes  the  chair  wdthout  making  a  speech.  He 
then  receives  nominations  for  the  office  of  temporary  sec- 
retary, who  will  keep  a  record  of  the  acts  of  the  meeting. 
When  this  officer  has  been  chosen  and  takes  his  place, 
the  meeting  is  ready  to  do  business. 

The  secretary  reads  the  call  or  announcement  of  the 
meeting  and  the  presi<leni   then  nuikes  his  address.     It 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  413 

may  be  similar  to  the  example  already  given  or  it  may  go 
more  into  detail.  It  should  not  be  too  decided  on  points 
which  will  be  later  discussed  for  settlement  by  the  meet- 
ing. It  may  be  decided  on  the  necessity  for  action  of  some 
sort  but  it  is  considered  "steam  roller"  tactics  for  the 
president  to  dictate  precisely  what  shall  be  done,  from 
the  chair. 

In  political  gatherings  for  organization  of  a  movement 
and  at  conventions,  the  opening  address  of  the  president 
is  often  the  * '  key-note  speech ' ' — the  speech  which  sets  the 
tone  of  the  meeting  and  outlines  the  general  aims  and 
ideals  of  the  gathering.  The  following  is  a  very  brief 
sample.     In  real  life,  it  would  be  much  expanded. 


Fellow  citizens ;  I  thank  you  for  the  honor  conferred  upon  me 
by  this  election  to  the  position  of  temporary  president  of  what 
may  prove  to  be  an  epoch-making  gathering.  "We  are  here  to 
voice  the  sentiments  of  progressive  democracy  as  against  those  of 
political  corruption  and  vested  interest  which  has  no  justification 
in  morals  or  practical  expediency. 

Allied  with  no  party  and  made  up  of  men  wlio  have  in  times 
past  engaged  in  the  activities  of  different  parties,  we  shall  forget 
all  lines  of  political  cleavage  and  stand  only  for  the  best  interests 
of  this  city.  We  shall  be  gnicled  by  no  other  considerations  than 
Ihose  of  fundamental  justice  and  business  efficiency.  The  old- 
line  parties  in  national  politics  have  made  their  nominations  for 
the  coming  city  elections.  Neither  presents  a  candidate  whom  we 
can  approve.  On  the  one  hand  we  find  named  for  mayor  a  man 
who  made  his  reputation  as  an  attorney  for  a  corporation,  that 
corporation  became  notorious  through  the  corrupt  methods  it  used 
to  secure  a  franchise  Avhereby  it  obtained  for  itself  our  best  strip 
of  river  front  land — a  pleasant  place  which  should  have  been 
kept  as  a  recreation  spot  where  the  poor  might  find  rest  and 
come  in  touch  with  healing  Nature,  themselves,  their  children, 
and  their  children's  children  forever.  On  the  other  hand  we 
have  offered  for  our  approval  a  typical  grafting  office  holder  Avho 
as  public  treasurer  was  involved  in  contract  scandals  of  the 
most  flagrant  sort.  What  cares  he  for  the  people  or  the  city  ?  He 
owes  his  allegiance  to  the  machine.  His  aim  will  not  be  efficiency 
and  the  reduction  of  taxes ;  rather  will  it  be  tlie  placing  of  the 
henchmen  of  his  chief  in  well-paid  city  jobs,  and  tlie  granting 
of  illegal  privileges  to  the  chief  himself. 


414  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

So  much  for  the  candidates  already  in  the  field.  What  issues 
are  presented  for  consideration  1  None  !  Each  party  attacks  the 
record  of  the  other  and  throws  mud  at  the  opposing  leaders  and 
candidates.  And  well  they  may,  for  their  targets  deserve  the 
shots.  But  neither  supports  a  single  reform,  neither  proposes 
one  improvement  in  administration,  neither  has  a  constructive 
suggestion  to  make. 

Yet  how  vast  is  the  field  of  needed  improvements!  I  shall 
mention  but  a  few  things  in  which  good  citizens  should  take  an 
interest  and  which  can  be  secured  by  intelligent  nomination  and 
votibg.  Our  public  school  system  needs  reorganization  and  greater 
support.  The  last  new  school  was  built  four  years  ago, 'and  the 
city  population  increases  steadily  at  the  rate  of  five  per  cent  a 
year.  Children  are  attending  part  time,  there  are  not  enough 
sittings,  and  the  teachers  are  underpaid.  Why  not  eliminate 
boodle  contracts  and  give  the  money  saved  over  to  the  proper 
education  of  our  children  ?  These  fat  contracts  are  another  issue. 
Our  system  of  bidding  and  awards  should  he  changed  so  that 
no  one  can  "get  on  the  inside."  We  should  see  that  the  city 
truly  receives  the  best  service  for  the  least  possible  cost. 

Our  civil  service  is  also  in  need  of  reform.  It  was  considered  a 
great  victory  for  honest  and  efficient  government  when,  twenty 
years  ago,  the  Civil  Service  Bill  was  passed, — a  bill  designating 
the  form  of  examinations  and  qualifications  for  public  service 
in  the  various  ranks.  But  our  politician  friends  have  got  around 
the  provisions  of  that  act  by  special  rules  and  exceptions  whereby 
their  own  favorites  are  given  favored  chances.  Furthermore  they 
have  placed  most  of  the  important  and  well-paid  positions  on 
the  exempt  list  and  such  appointive  positions  are  filled  by  the 
boss.  We  must  stand  for  efficiency  and  no  favor,  top  to  bottom, 
in  the  civil  service.  Why  not  urge  the  engagement  of  a  city 
manager,  independent  of  political  parties,  and  place  the  whole 
mechanism  of  employment  under  proper  and  safe  regulations, 
in  his  charge? 

Gentlemen,  I  have  said  enough  to  express  the  spirit  of  this 
meeting.  I  shall  not  enlarge  upon  the  wretched  condition  of  our 
charities,  the  corruption  in  the  police  department  and  the  ruin- 
ous financial  policy  adopted  by  the  old-line  parties  in  the  past. 
Others  will  address  you  and  treat  all  these  topics  thoroughly. 
No  doubt  we  shall  be  able  to  embody  our  sentiments  in  appro- 
priate resolutions  and  begin  a  campaign  of  civic  righteousne.ss. 
It  is  my  purpose  merely  to  arouse  your  sense  of  public  duty. 
Let  us  set  aside  old  prejudices,  let  us  realize  that  party  lines  must 
not  persist  in  municipal  affairs,  and  let  us  combine  in  a  non- 
partisan effort  to  secure  good  government — consciencious  and 
efficient  service  from  our  officials  and  public  improvements  for 
the  taxes  we  have  to  pay. 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  415 

At  a  nominating  convention,  the  "key-note  speech" 
outlines  the  situation  faced  by  the  party  and  touches  on 
the  general  policy  to  guide  the  platform  construction. 
The  example  just  given  can  be  followed  in  general  style, 
and  with  appropriate  modifications,  in  plan. 

Order  of  Business 

We  shall  not  go  into  parliamentary  matters,  but  it  may 
be  of  service  to  a  student  to  know  the  usual  order  of  busi- 
ness in  the  opening  meeting  of  a  convention,  the  organi- 
zation of  a  movement,  or  the  establishment  of  a  society. 

1.  Call  to  order. 

2.  Election  of  temporary  officers. 

3.  Beading  of  the  call   and  temporary  president's 

opening  address. 

4.  Appointment  of  committees  on  credentials  and  or- 

ganization (if  necessary). 

5.  Recess  with  informal  talk  while  the  committees  are 

deliberating. 

6.  Reports  of  committees  on  credentials  and  organi- 

zation. 

7.  Election  of  permanent  officers. 

8.  Installation  of  permanent  officers. 

9.  Appointment  of  all  committees. 

10.  Reading  of  communications. 

11.  Reports  of  committees. 

12.  Business. 

13.  Nominations  and  elections   (assuming  that  to  be 

part  of  the  business  of  the  convention). 

14.  Adjournment. 

CoNVEXTioN  Speeches 

We  have  already  given  examples  of  nominating 
speeches  in  Lessons  2  and  3,  and  on  page  25  of  Lesson 
2  is  to  be  found  a  general  type  plan  of  such  speeches. 


416   .  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Tl  i.i  or  some  similar,  well-organized  plan  can  be  used, 
with  modifications  to  suit  any.  nominating  occasion. 

Tlie  other  business  of  the  convention  or  public  meet- 
ing, is  to  settle  matters  of  principle  and  policy  to  be  em- 
bodied in  resolutions  or  a  platform.  In  Lesson  19  we 
quoted  a  speech  by  Patrick  Henry  (page  353)  exemplify- 
ing obstruction  methods  on  the  convention  floor.  The 
following  speech  b}^  Alexander  Hamilton,  before  a  similar 
convention  in  New  York  State  to  ratify  the  same  Con- 
stitution, illustrates  floor  rebuttal  and  constructive  argu- 
ment as  well : 


Mr.  Chairman,  the  honorable  member  who  spoke  yesterday 
went  into  an  explanation  of  a  variety  of  circumstances  to  prove 
the  expediency  of  a  change  in  our  national  government,  and  the 
necessity  of  a  firm  Union  ;  at  the  same  time  he  described  the  great 
advantages  which  this  state,  in  particular,  receives  from  the 
Confederacy,  and  its  peculiar  weaknesses  when  abstracted  from 
the  Union.  In  doing  this  he  advanced  a  variety  of  arguments 
which  deserve  serious  consideration.  Gentlemen  have  come  for- 
ward this  day  to  answer  him.  He  has  been  treated  as  having 
wandered  in  the  flowery  fields  of  fancy,  and  attempts  have  been 
made  to  take  off  from  the  minds  of  the  committee  that  sober  im- 
pression which  might  be  expected  from  his  arguments.  I  trust, 
sir,  that  observations  of  this  kind  are  not  thrown  out  to  cast  a 
light  air  on  the  important  subject,  or  to  give  any  personal  bias  on 
tlie  great  question  before  us.  I  wall  not  agree  with  gentlemen  who 
trifle  with  the  wealmesses  of  our  country ;  nor  will  I  suppose  that 
they  are  enumerated  to  answer  a  party  purpose,  and  to  terrify 
with  supposed  dangers.  No;  I  ])elieve  these  weaknesses  to  be 
real,  and  pregnant  with  destruction.  Yet,  however  w-eak  our 
country  may  be,  I  hope  w^e  shall  never  sacrifice  our  liberties.  If, 
therefore,  on  a  full  and  candid  discussion,  the  proposed  system 
shall  appear  to  have  that  tendency,  let  us  reject  it !  P>ut  let  us 
not  mistake  words  for  things,  nor  accept  doubtful  surmises  as  th(^ 
evidence  of  truth.  Let  us  consider  the  Constitution  calmly  and 
dispassionately,  and  attend  to  those  things  only  which  merit  con- 
sideration. 

No  arguments  drawn  from  embarrassment  or  inconvenience 
ought  to  prevail  upon  us  to  adopt  a  system  of  government  radic- 
ally bad;  yet  it  is  proper  that  these  arguments,  among  others, 
should  be  brought  to  view.  In  doing  tliis.  yesterday,  it  was 
necessary  to  reflect  njum  our  situation  :  to  dwell  upon  the  im- 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  417 

beeility  of  our  Union  ;  and  to  consider  whether  we,  as  a  state, 
eould  stand  alone. 

Although  I  am  persuaded  that  this  convention  will  be  resolved 
not  to  adopt  anything  that  is  bad,  yet  I  think  every  prudent 
man  will  consider  the  merits  of  the  plan  in  connection  with  the 
circumstances  of  our  country ;  and  that  a  rejection  of  the  Con- 
stitution may  involve  most  fa>tal  consequences.  I  make  these 
remarks  to  show  that  though  we  ought  not  to  be  actuated  by  un- 
reasonable fear,  yet  we  ought  to  be  prudent. 

Sir,  it  appears  to  me  extraordinary  that  while  gentlemen  in 
one  breath  acknowledge  that  the  old  Confederation  requires 
many  material  amendments,  they  should,  in  the  next,  deny  that 
its  defects  have  been  the  cause  of  our  political  weakness  and  the 
consequent  calamities  of  our  country.  I  cannot  but  infer  from 
this  that  there  is  still  some  lurking  favorite  imagination  that 
this  s.ystem,  with  corrections,  might  become  a  safe  and  permanent 
one.  It  is  proper  that  we  should  examine  this  matter.  We  con- 
tend that  the  radical  vice  in  the  old  Confederation  is  that  the 
laws  of  the  Union  apply  to  the  states  only  in  their  corporate 
eapacit.y.  Has  not  every  man  who  has  been  in  our  legislature 
experienced  the  truth  of  this  position?  It  is  inseparable  from 
the  disposition  of  bodies  who  have  a  constitutional  power  of 
resistance,  to  examine  the  merits  of  a  law.  This  has  ever  been 
the  case  with  the  federal  requisitions.  In  this  examination,  not 
being  furnished  with  those  lights  which  directed  the  deliberations 
of  the  general  government,  and  incapable  of  embracing  the  gen- 
eral interests  of  the  Union,  the  states  have  almost  uniformly 
weighed  them  by  their  own  local  interests;  and  have  executed 
them  only  so  far  as  answered  their  particular  convenience  or 
advantage.  Hence  there  has  ever  been  thirteen  ditferent  bodies 
to  judge  of  the  measures  of  Congress,  and  the  operations  of  the 
government  have  been  distracted  by  their  taking  different 
courses.  Those  which  were  to  be  benefited,  have  complied  with 
the  requisitions ;  others  have  totally  disregarded  them.  Have 
not  all  of  us  been  witnesses  to  the  unhappy  embarrassments 
which  resulted  from  these  proceedings?  Even  during  the  late 
Avar,  while  the  pressure  of  common  danger  connected  strongly 
the  bond  of  our  union,  and  excited  us  to  vigorous  exertions,  we 
have  felt  many  distressing  effects  of  the  impotent  system.  How 
have  we  seen  this  state,  though  most  exposed  to  the  calamities 
of  the  war,  complying,  in  an  unexampled  manner,  with  the  fed- 
eral requisitions,  and  compelled  by  the  delinquency  of  others  to 
bear  most  unusual  burdens!  Of  this  truth  we  have  -the  most 
solemn  evidence  on  our  records.  In  1779  and  1780  when  the 
state,  from  the  ravages  of  war,  and  from  her  great  exertions  to 
resist  them,  became  weak,  distr'^ssed,  and  forlorn,  every  man 
avowed  the  principle  we  now  contend  for;  that  our  misfortunes, 


418  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING' 

in  a  great  degree,  proceeded  from  the  want  of  vigor,  in  the  Con- 
tinental government.  These  were  our  sentiments  when  we  did 
not  speeulat^e,  but  feel.  We  saw  our  weakness,  and  found  our- 
selves its  victims.  Let  us  reflect  that  this  may  again,  in  all  prolv 
ability,  he  our  situation.  This  is  a  weak  state,  and  its  relative 
station  is  dangerous.  Your  capital  is  accessible  by  land,  and  by 
sea  it  is  exposed  to  every  daring  invader;  and  on  the  northwest 
you  are  open  to  the  inroads  of  a  powerful  foreign  nation.  Indeed 
this  state,  from  its  situation,  will,  in  time  of  war,  probably  be 
the  theatre  of  its  operations. 

Gentlemen  have  said  that  the  noneomxDliance  of  the  states  has 
been  occasioned  by  their  sufferings.  That  may  in  part  be  true. 
But  has  this  state  been  delinquent?  Amidst  all  our  distresses, 
u-e  have  fully  complied.  If  New  York  could  wholly  comply  with 
the  requisitions,  is  it  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  other' states 
could  in  part  comply  ?  Certainly  every  state  in  the  I'nion  might 
have  executed  them  in  the  same  degree.  But  New  Hampshire, 
who  has  not  suffered  at  -all,  is  totally  delinquent.  North  Carolina 
is  totally  delinquent.  Many  others  have  contributed  in  very 
small  proportion;  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  are  the  only 
states  which  have  perfectly  discharged  their  federal  duty. 

From  the  delinquency  of  those  states  which  have  suffered  little 
by  the  war,  we  naturally  conclude  that  they  have  made  no 
efforts ;  and  a  knowledge  of  human  nature  will  teach  us  that  their 
ease  and  security  have  been  the  principal  cause  of  their  want  of 
exertion.  While  danger  is  distant  its  impression  is  weak,  and 
wiiile  it  aff'ects  only  our  neighbors,  we  have  few  motives  to  pro- 
vide against  it.  Sir,  if  we  have  national  objects  to  pursue,  we 
must  have  national  revenues.  If  you  make,  requisitions  and  they 
are  not  complied  with,  what  is  to  be  done?  It  has  been  well 
observed  that  to  coerce  the  state  is  one  of  the  maddest  projects 
that  was  ever  devised.  A  failure  of  compliance  will  never  be  con- 
fined to  a  single  state ;  this  being  the  case,  can  we  suppose  it  to 
be  wise  to  hazard  a  civil  war?  Suppose  IMassachusetts  or  any 
other  large  state  should  refuse,  and  Congress  should  attempt  to 
compel  them;  would  they  not  have  influence  to  procure  assist- 
ance, especially  from  those  states  who  are  in  the  same  .situation 
as  themselves.?  What  a  picture  does  this  idea  present  to  our 
view!  A  complying  state  at  war  with  a  noncomplying  state; 
Congress  niarching  the  troops  ol'  one  state  into  the  bosom  of 
another;  this  state  collecting  auxiliaries  and  forming  perha])s  a 
ma^iority  against  its  federal  head.  Here  is  a  nation  at  war  willi 
itself!  A  government  that  can  exist  only  by  the  sword!  Every 
such  war  must  involve  the  innocent  with  the  gnilty.  This  .single 
cojisideration  should  be  snfTicient  to  dispose  every  peaceable  citi- 
zen against  sucli  a  government. 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  419 

But  can  we  believe  that  any  state  will  ever  suffer  itself  to  be 
used  as  an  instrument  of  coercion  against  another?  It  is  a 
dream;  it  is  impossible.  AVe  are  brought  to  this  dilemma:  either 
a  federal  standing  army  is  to  enforce  the  requisitions,  or  the  fed- 
eral Treasury  is  left  without  supplies,  and  the  government  with- 
out support.  What  is  the  cure  for  this  great  evil  ?  Nothing,  but 
to  enable  the  national  laws  to  operate  on  individuals  in  the  same 
manner  as  those  of  the  state  do. 

What  shall  we  do  ?  Shall  we  take  the  old  Confederation  as  the 
basis  of  the  new  system  ?  Can  this  be  the  object  of  gentlemen  ? 
Certainly  not.  Will  any  man  who  entertains  a  wish  for  the 
safety  of  his  country  trust  the  sword  and  the  purse  to  a  single 
Assembly,  organized  on  principles  so  defective?  Though  we 
might  give  to  such  a  government  certain  powers  with  safety,  yet 
to  give  them  the  full  and  unlimited  powers  of  taxation  and  the 
national  forces,  would  be  to  establish  a  despotism,  the  definition 
of  which  is,  a  government  in  which  all  power  is  concentrated  in 
a  single  body.  To  take  the  old  Confederation  and  fashion  it  upon 
these  principles  would  be  establishing  a  power  which  would 
destroy  the  liberties  of  the  people.  These  considerations  show 
clearly  that  a  government  totally  different  must  be  instituted. 
They  had  weight  in  the  Convention  which  formed  the  new  sys- 
tem. It  was  seen  that  the  necessary  powers  were  too  great  to 
be  trusted  to  a  single  body ;  they  therefore  formed  two  branches 
and  divided  the  powers,  that  each  might  be  a  check  upon  the 
other.  This  was  the  result  of  their  wisdom ;  and  I  presume  that 
every  reasonable  man  will  agree  with  it.  The  more  this  subject 
is  explained,  the  more  clear  and  convincing  it  will  appear  to 
every  member  of  this  bod.y.  The  fundamental  principle  of  the 
old  Confederation  is  defective.  We  must  totally  eradicate  and 
discard  this  principle  before  we  can  expect  an  efficient  gov- 
ernment. 

This  was  one  of  a  series  of  Hamilton's  addresses  which 
secured  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  by  the  New 
York  Convention.  When  the  first  test  came,  the  dele- 
gates stood  forty-six  to  nineteen  against  ratification; 
after  Hamilton's  efforts  the  Constitution  was  adopted  by 
a  majority  of  three  votes.  Observe  the  following  features 
of  this  piece  of  floor  eloquence : 

1.  Hamilton  conserves  all  the  ground  gained  by  his 
colleagues  by  means  of  terse  summary  and  favorable 
recapitulation  (paragraph  ]). 


120  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

2.  He  nullifies  the  work  of  the  opponents  without  giv- 
ing- offense  (paragTapli  1,  middle). 

o.  He  brings  the  question  clearly  before  the  conven- 
tion in  a  frank  and  unbiased  manner  (paragraph  1,  the 
end). 

4.  He  brings  up  the  issue  of  New  York  standing  alone 
(paragraph  2). 

This  is  a  good  beginning  with  the  particnhir  audience 
addressed. 

5.  He  expresses  confidence  in  the  judgment  of  the 
body  if  only  it  Avill  pi'operly  consider  the  matter  at  hand 
(paragraph  3). 

6.  His  arguments  in  the  remaining  paragraphs  are 
clear,  and  each  i^oint  is  supported  by  reference  to  what 
actually  took  place.  He  is  careful  to  draw  illustrations 
to  the  credit  of  New  York.  He  does  not  assail  the  state ; 
he  assails  only  the  old  system. 

7.  He  concludes  with  a  strong  summary  and  appeal 
for  the  now  inevitable  new  system  which  he  advocates. 

The  kind  of  argument  which  he  used  is  excellent  when- 
ever one  is  to  advocate  a  change  or  reform.  First  show, 
that  the  old  is  faulty  or  inaxlequate;  then  that  a  remedy 
is  essential;  and  then  that  the  proposed  remedy  over- 
comes the  old  defects  and  has  none  of  its  own.  If  the 
attack  on  the  old  can  be  so  managed  as  to  make  the  new 
the  inevitable  kind  of  reform,  the  speech  is  likely  to  be 
successful. 

Speeches  from  the  floor  of  a  convention  or  general 
meeting  should  be  dignified  Imt  not  ponderous,  keen  but 
not  acrimonious,  dealing  in  principles  and  not  personali- 
ties. The  student  will  do  well  to  go  over  this  speech  by 
Hamilton  many  times  with  these  general  ideals  in  mind. 
Perhaps  a  careful  not(>book  summary  ml,i.dit  be  wortli 
while.  This  might  inchide  (1)  ]K)ints  mentioned  above, 
(2)  an  analysi><  of  the  audience,  and  (;>)  a  statement 
of  the  conditions  of  the  speech  as  the  occasion  and  the 
purpose. 


SPECIAL  OC(L\SIOXS  421 

Refutation 

Before  leaving  convention  methods,  we  may  speak  of 
tlie  attention  which  one  should  pay  to  the  arguments  of 
an  opponent  and  the  form  of  refutation  in  reply.  One 
of  th€  greatest  parliamentary  speakers  the  world  has 
known  was  Charles  James  Fox,  the  English  statesman. 
It  is  said  that  he  could  listen  to  an  address  by  a  member 
of  the  other  side  and  retain  perfectly  every  point  made. 
His  pet  ruse  in  debate  was  to  restate  his  opponent's  argu- 
ments in  better  form  and  clearer  arrangement  than  the 
original  presentation;  then  when  they  were  before  the 
house  in  their  greatest  weight,  he  would  proceed  to  tear 
them  to  pieces.  To  approach  such  a  performance  should 
be  the  aim  of  every  speaker  who  wishes  to  break  a  lance 
in  convention  or  cross  swords  in  deliberative  bodies.  The 
accomplishment  is  useful  not  only  in  large  gatherings  but 
also  in  committees  and  small  groups  such  as  arbitration 
boards  and  boards  of  trustees. 

How  shall  the  speaker  school  himself  to  grasp  •  and 
retain  the  case  presented  by  his  antagonist  in  all  its 
details?  We  suggest  that  he  make  a  practice,  in  the 
beginning,  of  taking  analytical  notes,  using  the  regular 
blank  form  of  brief  described  in  Lesson  15.  For  instance, 
you  have  before  you  a  sheet  of  paper  ruled  with  a  broad 
column  to  the  left  for  opinions  or  inferences,  another 
broad  column  in  the  center  for  facts,  and  a  narrow  column 
to  the  right  for  sources.  If  the  opponent  advances  an 
opinion,  note  it  in  the  first  column.  If  he  supports  it  by 
minor  ideas,  note  them,  properly  indented,  under  the 
first.  If  he  gives  facts  for  support,  put  them  down  in 
the  proper  place,  and  so  on  until  you  build  up  a  com- 
plete brief  of  his  speech  as  he  proceeds.  A  little  practice 
will  give  you  great  skill  in  terse  expression  and  in  select- 
ing the  heart  of  the  message  and  separating  it  from  the 
amplification.     Keep  this  style  of  note-taking  up  for  a 


4L>2  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

while  and  you  will  soon  be  able  to  make  a  mental  brief 
and  retain  the  essential  matter. 

If  you  intend  to  say  something  in  refutation,  it  is  well 
to  restate  the  opponent's  case  clearly  at  the  outset.  This 
brings  it  once  more  before  the  audience  and  gives  point 
to  your  reply.  When  refuting,  it  is  well  to  have  a 
systematic  plan  of  attack.  The  following  is  offered  as  a 
general  mode,  portions  to  be  used  according  to  the  situa- 
tion faced.    Of  course  the  language  will  be  modified. 

1.  Even  if  the  two  reasons  given  by  Mr.  A —  were  con- 
ceded to  be  true,  it  would  not  necessarily  follow  that  his 
conclusion  to etc. — Avould  be  accepted;  because 


2.  We^  cannot  accept  Mr.  A's  conclusion  because  we 
do  not  accept  his  premises  or  reasons.    The  first,  namely, 

,  etc.,  cannot  be  accepted  because ;  and 

so  on. 

3.  We  cannot  agree  with  Mr.  A's  opinion  because  no 
reason  has  been  advanced  to  support  it.  Then  either 
demand  further  support  or  bring  forth  your  own  facts 
and  arguments  to  destroy  the  original  assertion's 
validity. 

If  you  have  briefed  the  other  man's  address,  you  are 
in  possession  of  a  logical  war  map  and  know  precisely 
wiiere  the  vulnerable  spots  are,  w^aiting  for  your  attack. 

Sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  evade  or  let  pass  what  an 
opponent  says  and  simply  try  to  offset  the  genera] 
impression  made.  In  such  a  case,  simply  keep  your  larger 
object  in  view  and  work  toward  it. 

In  all  discussions,  observe  parliamentary  courtesy.  Do 
not  refer  to  an  opponent  as  "he,"  but  rather,  "Mr.  So 
and  So,"  or  "The  gentlemen  who  just  spoke,"  or  some 
such  phrase.  Even  harsh  criticism  should  be  impersonal 
and  be  couched  in  parliamentary  language.  We  quote  a 
famous  ])a) Tmmcntai-y  retort  to  an  unparliamentary 
atlack. 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  423 

Henry   Grattan's  Reply   to   Mr.   Corry  in   the   Irish 
Parliament,  1800 

Has  the  gentleman  done ;  has  he  completely  done  ?  He  was 
unparliamentary  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  his  speech. 
There  was  scarce  a  word  he  uttered  that  was  not  a  violation  of 
the  privileges  of  the  house.  But  I  did  not  call  him  to  order. 
Why  ?  Because  the  limited  talents  of  some  men  render  it  impos- 
sible for  them  to  be  severe  without  becoming  unparliamentary. 
But  before  I  sit  down.  I  shall  show^  him  how  to  be  severe  and 
parliamentary  at  the  same  time. 

On  any  other  occasion  I  should  think  myself  justified  in  treat- 
ing with  silent  contempt  anything  which  might  fall  from  the  lips 
of  that  honorable  member.  But  there  are  times  when  the  insig- 
nificance of  the  accuser  is  lost  in  the  magnitude  of  the  accusa- 
tion. I  know  the  difficulty  the  honorable  gentleman  labored 
under  when  he  attacked  me,  conscious  that,  on  a  comparative 
view  of  our  characters,  public  and  private,  there  is  nothing  he 
could  say  Avhich  would  injure  me.  The  public  would  not  believe 
the  charge.  I  despise  the  falsehood.  If  such  a  charge  were  made 
by  an  honest  man,  I  would  answer  it  in  the  manner  I  shall  use 
before  I  sit  down.  But  I  shall  first  reply  to  it,  when  not  made  by 
an  honest  man. 

The  right  honorable  gentleman  has  called  me  "an  unimpeached 
traitor."  I  ask  why  not  "traitor,"  imqualified  by  an  epithet. 
I  will  tell  him ;  it  was  because  he  durst  not.  It  was  the  act  of  a 
coward  who  raises  his  arm  to  strike  but  has  not  the  courage  to 
give  the  blow.  I  will  not  call  him  villain,  because  it  would  be 
unparliamentary,  and  he  is  a  privy  counselor.  I  will  not  call 
him  fool,  because  he  happens  to  be  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 
But  I  say  he  is  one  who  abused  the  privilege  of  Parliament,  and 
freedom  of  debate,  by  uttering  language  which,  if  spoken  out  of 
the  House,  I  should  answer  only  with  a  blow.  I  care  not  how 
high  his  situation,  how  low  his  character,  how  contemptible  his 
speech ;  whether  a  privy  counselor  or  a  parasite — my  answer 
would  be  a  blow. 

He  has  charged  me  with  being  connected  with  the  rebels.  The 
charge  is  utterly,  totally,  and  meanly  false.  Does  the  honorable 
gentleman  rely  on  the  report  of  the  Plouse  of  Lords  for  the 
foundation  for  his  assertion?  If  he  does,  I  can  prove  to  the 
committee  that  there  was  a  phj'sical  impossibility  of  that  report 
l)eing  true.  But  I  scorn  to  answer  any  man  for  my  conduct, 
whether  he  be  a  political  coxcomb,  or  whether  he  brought  himself 
into  power  by  a  false  glare  of  courage  or  not. 

I  have  returned, — not,  as  the  right  honorable  member  has  said, 
to  raise  another  storm, — I  liave  returned  to  discharge  an  honor- 


424  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

able  debt  of  gratitude  to  my  country  that  conferred  a  great 
reward  for  past  services,  which,  I  am  proud  to  say,  Avas  not 
greater  than  my  desert.  I  have  returned  to  protect  that  Consti- 
tution of  Mhieh  I  was  the  parent  and  founder,  from  the  assassi- 
nation of  such  men  as  the  right  honorable  gentleman  and  his 
unworthy  associates.  They  are  corrupt,  they  are  seditious,  and 
they  at  this  very  moment  are  in  a  conspiracy  against  their  coun- 
try, I  have  returned  to  refute  a  libel  as  false  as  it  is  malicious, 
given  to  the  public  under  the  appellation  of  a  report  of  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Lords.  Here  I  stand  ready  for  impeachment  or 
trial.  I  dare  accusation.  I  defy  the  honorable  gentleman ;  I 
defy  the  government ;  I  defy  their  whole  phalanx ;  let  them 
come  forth.  I  tell  the  ministers,  I  will  neither  give  quarter  nor 
take  it.  I  am  here  to  lay  the  shattered  remains  of  my  constitu- 
tion on  the  floor  of  this  House,  in  defence  of  the  liberties  of  my 
country. 

Of  course,  provocation  must  go  pretty  far  before  a 
speech  such  as  the  one  just  given  should  be  uttered.  Yet 
there  are  times,  in  political  gatherings  especially,  when 
just  that  thing  is  needed.  A  few  years  ago,  Senator 
McCarren  of  Brooklyn  made  a  bitter  attack  on  Charles 
F.  Murphy,  Leader  of  Tammany  Hall,  in  the  Democratic 
Convention.  All  remember  some  of  the  bitter  speeches 
delivered  in  the  Republican  Convention  of  1912,  held  in 
Chicago,  which  resulted  in  Roosevelt's  withdrawal  from 
the  party.  It  is  Avhen  such  occasions  arise  that  the 
student  will  profit  by  the  example  just  offered  for  study. 

No  branch  of  public  speaking  is  more  interesting  than 
the  convention  and  legislative  field.  The  student  should 
perfect  himself  in  the  methods — equip  himself  for  such 
frays.  To  succeed  here  one  must  be  well-informed,  quiclv: 
of  analysis,  ready  in  speech,  and  fearless  of  heart. 

Assignment  of  Work 

'I  111-  writli'ii  exercises  in  tliis  entire  lesson  slioiild  1)0 
ciUetuliy  wurkeil  out.  Keep  eopies  of  tile  written  e\er- 
eises   in   yuiir   notebook. 

First  Day. — Read  the  lesson  tlirough  at  least  Iwirc.    Tlicn  answer 
the  test  questions. 


SPECIAL  OCXWSIOXS  ,  425 

Second  Day. — Outline  and  deliver  a  short  announcement  si)eeoh 
for  one  of  the  following  oeeasions: 

1.  fleeting  to  organize  the  workmen   in   an  unorganized 
branch  of  industry. 

2.  Meeting  of  citizens  to  agitate  for  local  option  in  li(|uor 
matters. 

3.  IMeeting  to  organize  a  social  club  or  some  society  for 
a  special  i)urpose. 

Third  Bay. — Plan  fully  and  then  write  out  a" key-note  speecli" 
for  a  convention  of  any  sort  you  may  select. 

Fouvtli  Bay. — Make  an  analytical  brief  of  the  Hamilton  speech. 

Fifth  Bay. — Plan  and  write  a  complete  rebuttal  of  the  Hamilton 
speech.  If  you  wish  to  analyze  and  refute  some  other  speech 
of  which  you  have  a  copy,  that  will  do  just  as  well. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

Theso  questions  arc  for  tlie  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  siKjfiestire  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  Name  four  kinds  of  speeches  wliieli  might  reasonably  bo 
(•..})eeted  during  the  organization  and  conduct  of  a  convention. 

2.  What  are  the  essential  features  of  the  explanatory  address 
of  one  who  calls  a  meeting  to  take  up  some  new  matter  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  "steam-roller  tactics"?  What  do  you 
tliink  of  such  tactics? 

■1.     Give  the  essential  features  of  a  typical ' '  key-note  speech. ' ' 

5.  How  could  the  one  given  be  improved  ?  Has  it  any  glar- 
ing faults  of  style,  or  is  the  style  goocl  and  clear? 

6.  Give  the  order  of  business  of  a  convention  or  organizing 
meeting. 

7.  What  do  ,you  think  of  Hamilton's  style?  How  does  it 
compare  with  that  of  Patrick  Henry?  Which  man  shows  the 
greater  intellectual  force?  If  either  were  to  be  accused  of  being 
a  demagogue,  which  would  be  so  designated  tirst? 

8.  What  should  be  the  characteristics  of  a  speech  from  the 
floor  of  a  convention  ? 

9.  What  is  the  ideal  equipment  and  method  of  one  who 
would  enter  floor  debate  ? 

10.  What  relation  does  a  brief  bear  to  the  analytical  notes 
of  an  opponent's  address? 

11.  Can  you  give  a  good  systematic  scheme  of  refutation? 

12.  What  was  said  about  parliamentary  courtesy  ?  Have  you 
ever  heard  a  speaker  who  lost  ground  simply  because  of  his  lack 
of  courtesy  ? 

13.  How  do  you  like  the  style  of  Grattan's  speech?  Would 
you  call  it  weighty  or  brilliant? 

14.  Is  his  own  speech  in  good  taste  throughout?  What  parts 
sound  too  egotistic?     How  could  the  speech  have  been  improved 

wilhoiil  sacrificing  llic  biting  effectiveness? 

426 


LESSON  24 

PRACTICAL  SPEECH  DIRECTIONS    (Continued) 

The  Chairman  of  Occasion 

Often  there  are  speech  occasions  when  many  addresses 
are  made  and  a  chairman  presides  over  all.  We  have  in 
mind  dedicatory  services,  the  laying  of  corner  stones, 
commemorative  gatherings,  commencement  exercises, 
and,  above  all,  banquets.  Of  first  interest  are  the  duties  of 
the  chairman,  or,  as  he  is  called  at  dinners,  the  toast- 
master.  He  is  master  of  ceremonies ;  he  must  preserve  the 
tone  of  the  meeting  and  see  that  the  program  is  carried 
out  smoothly.  His  speaking  consists  of  an  address  at  the 
ix'ginning,  short  introductions  to  the  other  speeches,  and 
sometimes  comments  at  their  conclusion. 

Opening  Address 

The  opening  talk  by  the  chairman  or  address  of  wel- 
come should  as  a  rule  be  very  brief.  There  are,  to  be 
sure,  times  when  this  introductory  address  has  impor- 
tance in  itself,  either  because  of  a  stand  to  be  taken  by 
the  presiding  officer  or  because  of  some  special  feature 
of  the  occasion  which  gives  him  and  his  message  peculiar 
weight.  But  when  he  is  simply  the  master  of  ceremonies, 
his  address  is  merely  introductory  and  should  in  no  way 
compete  with  the  set  speeches.  The  following  are  sug- 
gested as  proper,  typical  features  for  such  an  address. 

1.  It  should  set  the  tone  of  the  gathering.  If  the 
occasion  is  a  solemn  one,  the  speech  should  give  that  tone; 

427 


428  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

if  it  be  convivial,  tlie  speech  slioukl  be  jovial;  if  it  be  a 
l)i-isk  business  meeting,  the  speech  may  be  snappy. 

2.  It  may  refer  to  (a)  the  general  purpose  of  the 
organization,  (b)  the  special  reason  for  the  gathering, 
(c)  the  personal  attitude  of  the  speaker  himself  to  either 
of  these  or  some  special  i^hase.  This  last,  however,  must 
be  indulged  in  sparingly  and  with  entire  good  taste. 

3.  It  may  welcome  those  present  explicitly  or  implic- 
itly to  participate  appropriately  in  the  ceremonies. 

4.  It  should  launch  the  meeting  by  introducing  the 
first  speaker  or  by  ushering  in  Avhatever  else  the  program 
calls  for  first. 

At  the  connnemorative  services  conducted  by  the  Sen- 
ators and  Representatives  of  Massachusetts  in  honor  of 
Charles  Sumner,  the  following  introductory  address  was 
given  by  the  Honorable  Alexander  H.  Bullock : 

In  the  train  of  those  paying  mournful  tribute  to  Charles 
Sumner,  most  fit  is  the  presence  of  the  Legishiture  of  ]\Iassa- 
chusetts.  By  their  act,  twenty-four  years  ago,  the  gate  was 
opened  through  which  he  passed  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  for  life.  And  now,  after  this  lapse  of  time  and  the  close 
of  his  career,  the  Government  and  the  people  of  this  Common- 
wealth contemplate  with  just  and  solemn  satisfaction  the  con- 
tribution they  then  made  to  the  higher  sphere  of  statesmanship. 
They  recall  his  first  appearance  there,  seemingly  lost  amidst  a 
majority  who  were  tlie  emliodiment  and  type  of  ideals  so  mucli 
less  heroic  and  elevated  than  his  own ;  with  what  masterly 
unreserve  he  began  and  continued  his  great  mission,  disguising 
nothing,  sweeping  in  his  perspective  many  of  the  vast  results 
which  have  .since  been  attained ;  how  he  lived  to  see  his  grand 
central  aspirations  realized,  his  main  purposes  accomplished,  at 
his  death  leaving  as  a  truth,  never  before  so  well  illustrated  at 
the  Capital,  that  the  character  of  statesman  and  senator  derives 
added  strengtli  and  lustre  from  tlie  character  of  scholar  and 
philanthropist,  liberator  and  reformer. 

At  the  moment  of  the  greatest  triumph  of  Wilberfoi'ce,  on 
the  passage  of  his  bill  al)olishing  the  slave  trade,  Sir  Samuel 
Romilly,  amid  the  ringing  acclamations  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, called  upon  the  younger  members  to  observe  how  superioi- 
were  the  rewards  of  virtue  to  all  the  vulgar  conceptions  of 
ambition.     In  the  houi-  of  the  greatest  triumph  of  Sunnier — the 


THE  CIIAIRIMAN  OF  OCCASION  429 

hour  of  his  deatli — ;i  like  culnionition  arose  from  his  vacant  chair, 
calling"  upon  American  i)ublic  life  to  mark  the  lofty  exemplar, 
l)y  whom,  amid  abounding  corruption,  comparative  poverty  had 
been  held  as  honor;  to  whom  artifice  and  intrigue  had  been  an 
abhorrence;  w^ho,  in  the  long  practice  of  official  transactions  and 
official  manners,  had  never  acquired  an  official  heart ;  who  had 
guarded  his  conscience  against  every  assault,  and  always  kept 
that  vessel  pure ;  upon  whose  headstone  the  whole  Republic 
inscribes  for  its  souvenauee,  "Incorruptible  and  Unapproach- 
able." 

With  one  mind  the  Senators  and  Representatives  of  INIassa- 
chusetts,  successors  to  those  who,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century 
since,  sent  him  forth  with  the  seal  of  his  great  commission,  are 
present  by  these  fine  and  august  ceremonies  to  deliver  him  over 
to  history.  In  selecting  their  orator  for  this  tender  office,  they 
could  not  fail  to  call  for  him  who  best  would  give  voice  to  their 
eulogy.  As  our  lamented  Senator  was  a  master  in  all  the  art 
of  letters,  it  is  fitting  that  he  should  be  embalmed  by  the  art  of 
another  and  similar  master  and  personal  friend.  I  introduce  to 
you  Mr.  George  William  Curtis. 

Study  this  example  carefully  and  notice  the  way  the 
tone  of  the  meeting  is  established.  Observe  how  fitting 
the  ideas  are  to  the  occasion.  Also  note  the  adaptation 
to  the  special  audience,  as  well  as  the  appropriate  intro- 
duction of  him  who  was  to  make  the  long  eulogistic 
oration. 

The  opening  speech  of  a  toastmaster  at  a  dinner  con- 
forms to  the  plan  just  described  for  general  occasions. 
But  of  all  opening  speeches,  it  should  be — in  most  cases — 
the  shortest.  Obviously  the  toastmaster  has  the  guests 
at  his  mercy  and  he  can  do  as  he  pleases.  Too  often  we 
fear  he  takes  advantage  of  his  position,  bores  the  diners 
and  irritates  the  speakers  who  are  to  follow.  A  long- 
winded  toastmaster  is  insufferable. 

The  introduction  of  each  speaker,  by  the  toastmaster, 
should  be  short  and  it  should  tend  to  make  the  audience 
eager  to  hear  the  man  introduced.  Here  it  is  appropriate 
to  refer  appreciatively  to  (1)  some  general  trait  of  the 
speaker,  of  a  distinguishing  character,  (2)  some  particu- 
lar attainment,  or  (3)  the  value  and  interest  of  wdiat  he 


430  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

lias  to  say.  Often  these  things  are  conveyed  by  means 
of  an  anecdote,  story,  or  fable.  Observe  how  the  refer- 
ence was  made  in  the  introduction  of  George  AVilliani 
Curtis,  at  the  end  of  the  last  example. 

The  following  is  an  introduction  that  was  used  at  a 
dinner  of  a  department  of  a  large  corporation: 

Gentlemen,  somewhere  in  Greek  mythology,  we  read  of  an 
individual  who  carried  a  new-born  calf  to  the  barn.  And  every 
day,  he  made  it  a  practice  to  lift  the  calf,  always  managing  to 
hold  up  the  gradually  increasing  weight.  The  strength  of  the 
lifter  grew  with  the  calf's  growth,  and  when  it  was  a  full  grown 
bull,  the  master  could  raise  it  clear  off  the  ground.  Five  j^ears 
ago  our  contract  department  was  born  and  it  was  lifted  and 
carried  by  one  man.  Now  it  is  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the 
state ;  Mr.  Brown,  the  manager,  w'ill  speak  to  us  and  possibly  give 
the  secret  of  strength  which  enables  him  to  conduct  so  effieiently 
and  alone  the  work  which  had  its  small  beginnings  under  his 
care :     JMr.  Brown. 

The  complimentary  introduction  should  not  be  too  ful- 
some in  its  praise  and  gratifying  reference ;  to  exceed  the 
bounds  of  good  taste  gives  evidence  here  of  insincerity. 
Extravagant  and  insincere  praise  before  others  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  an  insulting  imposition ;  it  is  as  though 
the  toastmaster  were  having  fun  at  the  expense  of  his 
speaker.  This  remark  applies  also  to  the  comment  whicli 
the  toastmaster  sometimes  makes  at  the  conclusion  of  an 
address. 

After-Dinner  Speech 

The  dinner  speech  projjer  now  receives  our  attention. 
It  is  an  established  feature  of  civilized  life  and  all  speak- 
ers should  acquire  some  facility  in  this  form  of  address. 
The  occasion  is  a  convivial  one,  though  not  necessarily 
frivolous.  The  whole  tone  is  one  of  tolerance  and  good 
nature.  If  a  speaker  has  some  vigorous  contention  to 
make,  the  dinner,  as  a  rule,  is  not  the  place  to  nudve  it. 


THE  CHAIRMAN  OF  OCCASION  431 

The  speeches  sliould  be  addresses  calculated  to  cliarm  and 
give  i^leasure. 

This  i^leasure  may  ])e  of  the  intellectual  sort  which 
comes  I'rom  hearing  a  lofty  theme  treated  in  a  sympa- 
thetic and  artistic  manner.  It  may  be  rollicking  good 
humor  or  it  may  be  (luiet  fun  through  an  appreciation 
of  a  dry  but  kindly  criticism  of  life.  But  whatever  it  is, 
it  has  no  element  of  contention.  It  is  customary  for  a 
speaker  at  such  a  dinner  to  ascertain  beforehand  just 
the  sort  of  people  he  is  to  address  and  who  the  other 
speakers  will  be.  If  among  the  other  speakers  there  is 
one  with  whom  he  has  a  difference,  that  difference  must 
not  be  aired,  save  in  good-natured,  genuine  poking  of  fun 
at  himself  as  well  as  his  adversary.  It  is  better  to  decline 
an  invitation  to  speak  after  dinner  than  to  use  the  occa- 
sion as  a  means  of  getting  at  some  one  else  present  or 
absent. 

After  settling  the  question  of  audience  and  other 
speakers,  the  candidate  for  post-prandial  honors  will  con- 
sider his  subject  and  manner  of  treatment.  He  will  not 
attempt  to  demonstrate  anything  rigorously  by  force  of 
argument.  Neither  will  he  make  a  strenuous  appeal, 
unless  the  dinner  occasion  is  to  be  changed  from  its  social 
purpose  to  some  other.  Rather  will  he  select  some  topic 
of  interest  and  treat  it  in  a  broad,  human,  genial  way. 
The  treatment  should  be  expansive  rather  than  intensive. 

The  matter  used,  therefore,  is  more  of  the  general,  cul- 
tural sort  than  the  special,  rigorous  message.  As  in  all 
speeches,  there  should  be  a  central  theme  and  unity  of 
treatment,  but  the  attraction  of  the  speech  is  not  so  much 
the  driving  home  of  the  theme  in  itself  ais  the  graceful 
development  of  it  by  reference  to  a  wide  and  rich  field. 
Such  speeches  reveal  the  speaker's  general  attitude 
toward  life,  for  in  ornamenting  his  central  theme,  he 
draws  upon  the  things  nearest  his  heart  and  most  pleasing 
to  his  taste.    While  revolving  his  thoughts  before  those 


482  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

present    in    a    tolerant,    free    spirit,   he    indeed    reveals 
himself.     ' 

Note  the  tone  of  John  Hay's  address  before  the  Omar 
Khavyam  Clnb  of  l.ondon. 


Omar  Khayyam 

I  cannot  sufficiently  thank  yon  for  the  high  and  unmerited 
honor  you  have  done  me  tonight.  I  feel  keenly  that  on  such  an 
occasion,  with  such  company,  my  place  is  below  the  salt ;  but 
as  you  kindly  invited  me,  it  was  not  in  human  nature  for  me 
to  refuse. 

Although  in  knowledge  and  comprehension  of  the  two  great 
poets  whom  you  are  met  to  commemorate  I  am  the  least  among 
you.  there  is  no  one  who  regards  them  with  greater  admiration, 
or  reads  them  with  more  enjoyment,  than  myself.  I  can  never 
forget  my  emotions  when  I  first  saw  FitzGerald's  translati(ms  of 
the  Quatrains.  Keats,  in  his  sublime  "ode  on  Chapman's  Homer, 
has  described  the  sensation  once  for  all: 

Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies. 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken. 

The  excjuisite  beauty,  the  faultless  form,  the  singular  grace  of 
those  amazing  stanzas  Avere  not  more  wonderful  than  the  depth 
and  breadth  of  their  profound  philosophy,  their  knowledge  ol' 
life,  their  dauntless  courage,  their  serene  facing  of  the  ulti- 
mate problems  of  life  and  of  death.  Of  course  the  doubt  did 
not  spare  me,  which  has  assailed  many  as  ignorant  as  I  wa  • 
of  the  literature  of  the  East,  whether  it  was  the  poet  or  hi^ 
translator  to  whom  was  due  this  splendid  result.  Was  it,  in 
fact,  a  reproduction  of  an  antique  song,  or  a  mystification  of  a 
great  modern,  careless  of  fame  and  scornful  of  his  time?  Could 
it  be  possible  that  in  the  eleventh  century,  so  far  away  as  Khoras- 
san,  so  accomplished  a  man  of  letters  lived,  with  such  distinction, 
such  breadth,  such  insight,  such  calm  disillusion,  such  cheerful 
and  jocund  despair!  Was  this  Weltschmerz,  which  we  thought 
a  malady  of  our  day,  endemic  in  Persia  in  1100?  ]\Iy  doubt  onlv 
lasted  till  I  came  upon  a  literal  translation  of  the  Rubaiyat,  and 
I  saw  that  not  the  least  remarkable  quality  of  FitzGerald's  poem 
was  its  fidelity  to  the  original.  In  short,  Omar  was  a  Fitz- 
Gerald  hrfore  the  Idler,  or  FitzGerald  was  a  reincarnation  of 
Omar. 

It  is  not  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  later  poet  that  he  followed 
so  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  the  earlier.  A  man  of  extraordinary 
genms'had  appeared  in  the  world;  had  sung  a  song  of  incom- 


THE  CHAIRMAN  OF  OCCASION  433 

I)arable  beauty  and  power  in  an  environment  no  longer  worthy 
of  him,  in  a  language  of  narrow  range;  for  many  generations 
the  song  was  virtually  lost;  then  by  a  miracle  of  creation,  a  poet, 
twin-brother  in  the  spirit  to  the  tirst,  was  born,  who  took  up  the 
forgotten  poem  and  sang  it  anew  with  all  its  original  melody 
and  force,  and  with  all  the  accumulated  retinement  of  ages 
of  art.  It  seems  to  me  idle  to  ask  which  was  the  greater  master; 
each  seems  greater  than  his  work.  The  song  is  like  an  instrument 
of  precious  workmanship  and  marvelous  tone,  which  is  worth- 
less in  common  hands,  but  when  it  falls,  at  long  intervals,  into 
the  hands  of  the  supreme  master,  it  yields  a  melody  of  tran- 
scendent enchantment  to  all  that  have  ears  to  hear. 

If  we  look  at  the  sphere  of  influence  of  the  two  poets,  there 
is  no  longer  any  comparison.  Omar  sang  to  a  half-barbarous 
province:  FitzGerald  to  the  world.  AVherever  the  English 
speech  is  spoken  or  read,  the  Rubaiyat  have  taken  their  place  as 
a  classic.  There  is  not  a  hill-post  in  India,  nor  a  village  in 
England,  where  there  is  not  a  coterie  to  whom  Omar  Khayyam 
is  a  familiar  friend  and  a  bond  of  miion.  In  America  he  has 
an  equal  following,  in  many  regi(ms  and  conditions.  In  the 
p]astern  States  his  adepts  form  an  esoteric  set ;  the  beautiful 
volume  of  drawings  by  Mr.  Vedder  is  a  center  of  delight  and 
suggestion  wherever  it  exists.  In  the  cities  of  the  West  you 
will  find  the  (Quatrains  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  read  books 
in  every  club  library.  I  heard  them  cjuoted  once  in  one  of 
the  most  lonely  and  desolate  spots  of  the  high  Rockies.  We 
had  been  camping  on  the  Great  Divide,  our  "roof  of  the  M-orld," 
where,  in  the  space  of  a  few  feet  you  may  see  two  springs,  one 
sending  its  waters  to  the  Polar  solitudes,  the  other  to  the  eternal 
Carib  summer.  One  morning  at  sunrise,  as  we  were  breaking 
camp,  I  was  startled  to  hear  one  of  our  party,  a  frontiersman 
born,  intoning  these  words  of  somber  majesty : 

'Tis  but  a  tent  where  takes  his  one  day's  rest 
A  Sultan  to  the  realm  of  death  addrest ;  • 
The  Sultan  rises,  and  the  dark  Ferrash 
Strikes  and  prepares  it  for  another  guest. 

I  thought  that  sublime  setting  of  primeval  forest  and  frowninjj^ 
canon  was  worthy  of  the  lines ;  I  am  sure  the  dewless,  crystalline 
air  never  vibrated  to  strains  of  more  solemn  music. 

Certainly,  our  poet  can  never  be  numbered  among  the  great 
popular  writers  of  all  time.  He  has  told  no  story ;  he  has  never 
unpacked  his  heart  in  public ;  he  has  never  thrown  the  reins  on 
the  neck  uf  the  winged  horse,  and  let  his  imagination  carry  him 
where  it  listed.  "Oh!  the  crowd  must  have  emphatic  warrant," 
as  Browning  sang.     Its  suffrages  are  not  for  tlie  cool,  collected 


434  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

observer,  whose  eyes  no  glitter  ean  dazzle,  no  mist  suffuse.  The 
many  cannot  but  resent  that  air  of  lofty  intelligence,  that  pale 
and  subtle  smile.  But  he  Avill  hold  place  forever  among  that 
limited  number  who,  like  Lucretius  and  Epicurus, — without 
rage  or  defiance,  even  without  unbecoming  mirth, — look  deep 
into  the  tangled  mysteries  of  things;  refuse  credence  to  the 
absurd,  and  allegiance  to  arrogant  authority ;  sufficiently  con- 
scious of  fallibility  to  be  tolerant  of  all  opinions ;  with  a  faith 
too  wide  for  doctrine  and  a  benevolence  untrammeled  by  creed, 
too  wise  to  be  wholly  poets,  and  yet  too  surely  poets  to  be 
implacably  wise.^ 

Observations : 

1.  The  theme  is  obviously  most  appropriate. 

2.  The  tone  and  contents  are  perfectly  adapted  to  the 
audience. 

3.  The  style  is  polished,  yet  genial  and  contemplative 
as  naturally  befitted  a  cultivated  gentleman  addressing 
bis  equals  at  dinner. 

4.  The  speech  is  short. 

Besides  these  specific  things  to  be  noted,  one  feels  a 
general,  sincere  urbanity,  as  he  catches  a  glimpse  of  a 
literary  man  of  no  mean  attainments,  delighting  his 
hearers  and  himself  with  his  reflections  on  a  beloved  topic. 
Even  with  change  of  topics,  something  of  this  feeling, 
in  varying  degrees,  should  go  with  all  after-dinner 
speeches. 

To  show  how  this  is  evidenced  in  more  humorous 
speeches,  we  give  the  following  extemporaneous  address 
made  by  John  Hay  on  Thanksgiving  Day,  1865,  in  Paris, 
when  he  was  Secretary  of  Legation.  It  is  one  of  his  very 
first  addresses. 

OlK   COTTNTRVWOMEN 

My  Countrymen — and  I  would  say  my  countrywomen,  but 
that  the  former  word  embraces  the  latter  whenever  opportunity 
offers — I  cannot  understand  why  I  should  have  been  called  upon 
to  respond  to  this  toast  of  all  others,  having  nothing  but  theoret- 

'  Tlio  Hay  speeches  are  froiii  Addicss  by  .luhn  llaii   ((VMiturv  Co..  1006). 


THE  CIIAIKMAX  OF  OCCASIOX  435 

ical  ideas  upon  the  sul)jeet  to  be  treated — one,  iii  fact,  1  must 
l)e  ])resuined  never  to  have  handled.  (Laughter  and  ai)plause.) 
1  have  been  called  up,  too,  by  a  committee  of  married  men.  I 
can  think  of  no  claim  I  have  to  be  considered  an  authority  in 
these  matters,  except  what  might  arise  from  the  fact  of  my 
having  resided  in  early  life  in  the  same  neighborhood  with 
Hrigham  Young,  who  has  since  gained  some  reputation  as  a 
thorough  and  practical  ladies'  man.  (Great  laughter.)  I  am 
not  conscious,  however,  of  having  imbibed  any  such  wisdom  at 
the  feet  of  this  matrimonial  Gamaliel  as  should  justly  entitle  me 
to  be  heard  among  the  elders. 

8o  I  am  inevitably  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  these  hus- 
bands cannot  trust  each  other's  discretion.  The  secrets  of  the 
prison-house  are  too  important  to  be  trusted  to  one  of  the 
prisoners.  So  ignorance  of  the  matter  in  hand  has  come  to  be 
held  an  absolute  prerequisite  when  anyone  is  to  be  sacrificed  to 
the  exigencies  of  this  toast. 

I  really  do  not  see  why  this  should  be  so.  It  is  useless  for  hus- 
bands to  attempt  to  keep  this  thin  veneering  of  a  semblance  of 
authority.  The  symbols  of  government  they  still  retain  deceive 
nobody.  They  may  comfort  themselves  with  the  assurance  of 
some  vague  invisible  supremacy,  like  that  of  the  spiritual  JMikado 
or  the  Grand  Llama,  but  the  true  Tycoon  is  the  wife.  A  witty 
and  profound  observer  the  other  day  said:  "Every  husband 
doubtless  knows  he  is'  master  in  his  own  house,  but  he  also  knows 
his  neighbor's  wife  is  master  in  hers."     (Laughter  and  cheers.) 

Why  should  not  you,  husbands  of  America,  admit  this  great 
truth  and  give  up  the  barren  scepter?  Things  would  go  much 
easier  if  you  ceased  the  struggle  to  keep  up  appearances.  The 
ladies  will  not  be  hard  on  you.  They  will  recognize  the  fact 
that,  after  all,  you  are  their  fellow-creatures,  and  you  can  be 
very  useful  to  them  in  many  little  ways.  They  will  doubtless 
allow  you  to  pay  their  bills,  take  care  of  their  children,  and  carry 
their  votes  to  the  ballot-box  just  as  you  do  now. 

You  had  better  come  down  gracefully,  and  above  all,  let  no 
feeling  of  discovered  inferiority  betray  you  in  evil  speaking  of 
the  domestic  powers.  There  have  been  recent  instances  of  dis- 
tinguished gentlemen,  no  doubt  instigated  by  rebellious  husbands, 
who  have  recklessly  accused  these  guardian  angels  of  your  fire- 
sides of  being  extravagant  and  frivolous.  These  things  are  never 
uttered  with  impunity.  I  would  not  in.sure  the  life  of  one  who 
libels  the  ladies  for  less  than  cent  per  cent. 

' '  Discite  justitiam  moniti  et  non  temnere  Divas ! ' '  which,  as 
you  may  not  understand  the  backwoods  pronunciation  of  the 
classic  warning,  I  will  translate  with  a  freedom  befitting  the 
dav  we  celebrate ; 


436  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

."Now.  all  you  happy  husbands. 
Beware  the  rebel's   fate! 
Live  in  obedience  all  your  lives. 
Give  up  3^our  latch-keys  to  your  wives, 
And  never  stay  out  late." 


The  humorous  after-dinner  speech  should  never  descend 
to  buffoonery,  nor  should  the  fun  be  of  an  undesirable 
sort.  Now  and  then,  at  stag  dinners,  someone  drops  to 
the  level  of  '' off-color"  stories.  Never  do  this  yourself; 
it  is  a  most  undesirable  habit  to  start.  Even  if  such 
entertainment  does  not  offend  those  who  listen,  a  stamp 
and  character  is  given  to  the  mind  of  the  speaker  which 
is  detrimental  to  success  in  the  worth-while  fields. 

This  reminds  us  of  one  of  the  services  of  the  toast- 
master.  If  one  of  the  speakers  should  make  a  faux  pas 
in  the  use  of  an  undesirable  story,  or  if  one  should  say 
something  offensive  in  sentiment,  belief,  or  prejudice  to 
some  of  those  present,  the  master  of  ceremonies,  at  the 
end  of  the  speech,  by  tactful  comment;  indicates  that  the 
sentiment  of  the  gathering  as  a  whole  is  not  in  the 
offensive  direction.  This  he  must  do,  if  he  does  it  at  all, 
with  the  best  of  good-humor  and  without  hurting  either 
the  culprit  or  the  others  present.  It  is  his  place,  when 
a  jarring  note  is  struck,  to  restore  the  harmony  of  the 
gathering.  Of  course  it  is  wisest  sometimes  to  let  a  slip 
pass  without  comment  of  any  sort.  If  a  speaker  is  dull 
and  the  guests  become  restless,  it  is  for  the  toastmaster 
to  save  the  day  by  a  bright  sally  or  story.  If  things 
become  too  hilarious,  it  is  he  who  will  sober  matters  down 
to  the  plane  of  dignified  fun. 

-Some  men  think  that  the  after-dinner  speech  is  a  sort 
of  vaudeville  monologue  made  up  of  a  series  of  jokes 
loosely  hung  together.  That  is  one  of  the  cheapest  kinds 
of  speech.  In  fact  it  is  no  speech  at  all,  for  it  does  not 
reveal  the  speaker  to  the  audience.  It  reflects  no  per- 
sonality save  one's  taste  in  jokes;  it  lacks  originality 


i 


THE  CIIATR:\rAX  OF  OCCASION  437 

and  has  nothing-  of  communication  whatsoever  in  it.  A 
l)lionogTaph  could  render  this  sort  of  entertainment 
ahnost  as  well  as  the  speaker,  and  a  paid  performer  could 
do  better.  A  short  story  or  joke  now  and  then  in  the 
after-dinner  speech,  on  the  other  hand,  is  welcomed  by 
the  audience.  If  the  audience  be  at  all  discriminating, 
the  welcome  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  appropriateness 
of  the  joke  in  connection  with  a  real  point  to  be  brought 
forth.    Do  not  drag  jokes  in  by  the  hair  of  the  head. 

Also  have  mercy  on  your  audience  and  refrain  from 
the  frequent  use  of  hackneyed  quotations  and  scraps  of 
doggerel  rhyme.  It  is  very  boring  to  hear  one  reel  off 
a  lot  of  sentiments  and  quotations  dug  out  of  some  com- 
pilation. The  three  besetting  sins  of  the  after-dinner 
speaker  of  the  common  variety  are : 

1.  The  old  jokes; 

2.  The  hackneyed  quotations; 

3.  Eambling  lack  of  unity  and  real  theme. 

Summary  of  Advice  for  After-Dixxer  Speaking 

1.  Learn  all  you  can  about  the  audience, 

2.  Find  out  who  else  will  speak. 

3.  Make  your  speech  short,  especially  if  many  others 
are  to  talk. 

4.  Make  it  of  a  character,  in  matter,  that  will  not  only 
offend  no  one  present  but  will  really  please  all.  This 
means  that  you  must  choose  a  topic  in  harmony  with  the 
occasion  and  those  present. 

5.  Select  a  topic  in  harmony  with  your  own  tastes 
and  knowledge.  If  it  is  assigned  to  you,  treat  it  so  as  to 
conform  with  wdiat  has  been  said. 

6.  Let  your  treatment  be  genial  rather  than  impetu- 
ous, expansive  rather  than  intense. 

7.  Have  it  well  prepared  and  planned.  Do  not 
ramble. 


438  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

8.     Avoid  the  old  jokes  and  those  dragged  in. 
1).     Avoid  the  hackneyed  quotation. 
10.     Finally  be  your  best  self,  enjoying  yourself  among 
friends,  on  a  high  level  of  intellectual  pleasure. 

Vocational  Talks 

In  all  the  branches  of  business  activity,  from  the  man- 
aging of  a  great  city  down  to  the  smaller  departments  of 
commercial  companies,  the  value  of  the  conference  is 
being  recognized.  In  the  old  days,  the  head  of  the  estab- 
lishment issued  his  orders,  and  those  under  his  authority 
carried  them  out  as  well  as  their  understanding  of  them 
would  permit.  But  it  is  a  growing  custom  for  chiefs  to 
make  short  addresses  to  those  working  with  them,  out- 
lining problems  and  seeking  the  combined  wisdom  of  all 
as  the  basis  of  their  solution.  These  gatherings  give  even 
those  in  the  lower  ranks  a  broad  outlook  so  that  each  can 
see  his  individual  task  in  its  i^roper  place  in  a  great  work- 
ing organization.  Through  them,  the  worker  is  made  to 
feel  that  he  is  not  merely  a  mechanical  part  but  also  a 
thinking  part  of  the  grand  scheme.  At  the  conferences, 
it  is  customary  for  the  chief,  or  someone  designated  by 
him  because  of  superior  experience  or  knowledge  in  a 
given  branch,  to  make  an  address  and  with  that  as  the 
starting  point  have  discussions  of  mutual  benefit  to  all 
participating  and  especially  to  the  firm.  It  is  difficult  to 
get  good  samples  of  this  sort  of  address,  for  they  are  not 
preserved.  Furthermore,  what  would  be  appropriate  for 
one  branch  of  work  would  be  of  no  interest  to  others.  It 
therefore  seems  best  to  offer  a  typical  outline  rather  than 
a  particular  speech. 

A — Prerequisites  for  Success: 

1.  Tlie  general  ones  necessary  for  all  success  in 
speaking. 


THE  CIIAIRMAX  OF  OCCASION  439 

2.  Intimacy  of  tone  and  physical  closeness.  Gather 
the  men  around  as  friends ;  do  not  spread  them  out  in  a 
great  room  to  listen  to  a  formal  address.  The  closer  they 
can  be  grouped  together  as  in  a  social  gathering,  the 
better. 

3.  Thorough  democracy  in  the  conduct  of  the  meet- 
ing. This  is  not  incompatible  with  the  recognition  of 
authority  arising  from  position  or  superior  knowledge, 
but  it  is  incompatible  with  the  obtrusion  of  distinctions 
in  rank.  All  the  men  of  various  ranks  come  together  for 
mutual  help. 

4.  Most  careful  preparation  and  planning  of  the  talk 
and  the  points  to  be  brought  out  in  the  discussion.  This 
is  necessary  to  prevent  the  conference  from  becoming  a 
mere  chat. 

B — Typical  Outline: 

1.  Introduction  to  establish  tone  of  pleasantness  and 
to  arouse  interest. 

2.  Statement  of  the  problem. 

(a)  Defects  of  an  old  system  under  consideration 
for  modification. 

(b)  Proposed  system  with  its  advantages  and  pos- 
sible disadvantages. 

3.  Effect  of  adoption: 

(a)  Upon  the  efficiency  of  the  firm. 

(b)  Upon  the  employees  who  will  have  to  carry 
it  out. 

4.  Appeal  for  co-operation  and  further  discussion 
with  suggestions. 

During  the  speech,  those  present  should  take  notes.  It 
is  well  for  each  to  formulate  his  contribution  to  the  dis- 
cussion before  rising.  Simplicity  and  clearness  are  the 
chief  essentials  of  good,  minor  contributions. 

The  principles  which  hold  for  a  departmental,  voca- 
tional talk  hold  also  for  professional   conferences,  for 


440  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

committee  meetings,  and  for  hearings  before  boards  of 
appropriation  and  management.  The  success  of  all  such 
conferences,  and  above  all  the  departmental  ones,  is 
remarkable.  An  esprit  de  corps  is  developed  which 
increases  individual  and  combined  efficiency  many  fold. 
The  man  of  superior  position  gets  an  insight  into  the 
feelings  and  special  problems  of  the  subordinate  and  the 
man  in  the  ranks  comes  to  realize  the  difficulties  of  those 
in  authority.  The  resulting  information  and  sympathy 
bring  about  healthy  co-operation  and  friendliness  to 
replace  possible  antipathy.  In  this  field  of  speech  one  can 
do  much  good,  for  we  influence  men  largely  by  personal 
contact.  The  world  will  be  reformed  when  men  come  to 
know  each  other  through  sympathy,  and  not  by  the  force 
of  external  legislation  and  compulsion. 


Assignment  of  Work 


The  written  exercises  in  this  entire  k»sson  sliould  be 
carefully  worked  out.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  vour  notebook. 


First  Day. — Read  over  the  lesson  two  or  three  times  and  take 
up  the  test  questions. 

Second  Day. — Plan  and  make  an  opening  address  at  one  of  the 
following  occasions : 

1.  The  laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  a  hospital.  Audi- 
ence mixed,  townspeople. 

2.  Graduation  exercises  of  a  boy's  technical  and  trade 
school. 

3.  Meeting  to  commemorate  the  anniversary  of:  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,  Robert  E.  Lee,  Henry  Ward  Beeeher,  William 
Lloyd  Garrison,  General  Grant,  or  some  one  you  admire 
and  about  whom  .you  know.  Remember  that  this  is  not  a 
complete  eulogy,  bnt  merely  your  introductory  remarks. 
Other  speakers  are  to  follow  with  elaborate  speeches. 

Third  Day. — Write  out  four  or  five  appropriate  introductions  to 
dinner  speakers.  Make  comments  on  the  personalities  of 
the  men  introduced,  the  audience,  and  the  occasion. 


THE  CHAIRMAN  OF  OCCASION  441 

FourlJi  Ddi). — OiitliiU'  c'JU'ct'ully  jiiid  devclo])  ()r;i]l\'  ;tn  after- 
(liiiucr  si)eec'h.  lliwe  in  iiiiiul  all  the  thiiif>s  noted  on  page 
4:^7   for  after-dinner  speakers  to   have  in   mind. 

Fifth  Day. — Outline  a  departmental  talk  that  might  well  be 
given  in  your  business.     Develop  the  talk  orally. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

Tliese  questions  arc  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  sugyestive  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
application  of  the  principles,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
notebook  for  future  reference. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  an  occasional  address? 

2.  Give  some  of  the  characteristics  that  a  good  opening 
address  by  the  chairman  of  occasion  should  have. 

3.  How  do  you  like  Mr.  Bullock's  style?  Is  it  fitting  to 
the  occasion  ?     Could  it  be  improved  in  any  way  ?     How  ? 

■4.  What  is  the  scope  of  the  short  introduction  of  a  particu- 
lar speaker  by  the  chairman  ? 

5.  What  is  to  be  said  about  the  degree  of  flattery  in  a 
complimentary  introduction  ? 

6.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  gathering  at  which  the  after- 
dinner  speaker  makes  his  address?     What  is  its  general  tone? 

7.  Give  the  general  nature  of  the  treatment  of  the  theme 
by  an  after-dinner  speaker.     Is  contention  in  place? 

8.  Do  you  think  Hay's  after-dinner  speech  on  Omar  too 
difficult  for  the  man  of  average  intelligence?  If  so,  why?  If 
not,  why? 

9.  Is  Hay's  style  pleasing?  Do  you  like  his  diction?  If 
asked  to  describe  his  style,  what  would  you  say  ? 

10.  How  does  the  second  of  his  speeches  given  here  compare 
with  the  first?  Which  should  make  the  greater  "hit"  at  the 
time  of  delivery?  Which  should  abide  longest  in  the  mind  after 
it  is  heard? 

11.  Tell  some  of  the  duties  of  the  toastmaster  during  the 
progress  of  the  dinner. 

12.  What  do  you  think  of  the  strung-together-joke  style  of 
after-dinner  speech? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  a  vocational  talk? 

14.  What  are  the  prerequisites  for  success  in  this  sort  of 
address  ? 

15.  What  are  the  advantages  or  good  to  be  accomplished 
by  the  vocational  talk  ? 

442 


LESSON  25 
practical  speech  directions  for  special  occasions 

1.     The  Biographical  Eulogy 

It  is  obvious  that  there  are  too  many  speech  occasions 
to  permit  of  exhaustive  illustration  or  even  fairly  satis- 
factory classification.  Consequently,  we  must  select 
those  types  which  are  most  commonly  used  or  which, 
because  of  their  structure,  will  help  us  to  understand 
others  of  a  similar  character.  Of  all  these,  the  biograph- 
ical eulogy  is  probably  the  most  serviceable  to  study.  It 
cannot  be  delivered  without  a  fair  degree  of  attention  to 
structure,  and  when  made,  the  structure  worked  out  may 
be  applied  to  other  kinds  of  speech.  Its  matter,  a 
critical  appreciation  of  the  life  and  character  of  a 
man,  is  similar  to  the  matter  of  a  commemorative 
address,  which  deals  with  national  life  and  character  or 
mass  attainments  rather  than  individual  attainments. 

Other  speeches  also  have  matter  similar  in  kind  and 
treatment  to  that  of  the  eulogy.  Such  speeches  are 
made  at  anniversaries,  the  laying  of  cornerstones,  dedi- 
cations, and  exercises  of  various  sorts.  The  invective  is 
identical  in  form  with  the  eulogy  though  the  sentiments 
expressed  are  of  opposite  nature. 

We  have  given  several  examples  of  eulogistic  speak- 
ing. In  Lesson  1,  page  11,  we  quoted  a  passage  from 
Ijincoln's  eulogy  of  Henry  Clay.  This  selection  shows 
an  analytic   treatment  of  virtues.     In  Lesson  5,  page 

443 


444  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

69,  we  quoted  a  portion  of  Carl  Scliurz's  "Charles 
Sumner."  This  was  to  illustrate  the  arrangement  of 
the  body  of  the  sjje^'ch  according  to  sequence  in  time — 
the  chronological  oidcr.  Read  these  once  more,  as  well 
as  the  conclusion  of  AVendell  Phillips'  "Daniel  O'Con- 
nell."     (Lesson  6,  page  £0.) 

We  may  speak  of  eulogies  as  of  two  kinds,  the  formal 
and  the  intimate.  The  formal  eulogy  deals  with  some 
great  man  of  national  importance  and  is  addressed  to 
those  who  have  come  in  contact  with  him  indirectly  and 
through  his  works  only;  the  intimate  eulogy  is  an  appre- 
ciation of  a  man  by  one  who  knew  him  well  and  is 
addressed  to  the  smaller  circle  of  those  who  were  also 
his  intimate  friends.  The  great,  formal  eulogies  are  like 
Greek  tragedies  in  that  they  imjjress  with  distant  and 
universal  grandeur ;  but  the  informal  eulogy  warms 
each  individual 's  heart.  There  are  far  more  of  this  kind 
delivered,  but  relatively  few  of  them  are  recorded  and 
preserved.  Not  many  men,  and  they  only  the  great 
orators  of  wide  reputations,  are  called  upon  to  deliver 
formal  eulogies,  but  many  have  to  make  the  informal 
kind  at  birthday  gatherings,  anniversaries  of  various 
sorts,  and  funerals. 

Before  going  into  the  characteristics  of  such  an 
address,  it  may  be  well  to  read  one  as  an  example.  We 
give  a  speech  by  Mr.  Lewis  Say  re  Burchard,  of  the  New 
York  bar,  eulogizing  his  old  professor  of  pliysics  at 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  Professor  Compton's  gradua- 
tion from  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York — known 
luring  its  early  years  as  the  Free  Academy.  This 
speech  was  made  to  a  large  gathering  of  brother  alumni 
who  knew  the  old  professor  as  a  teacher  and  to  whom 
every  glimpse  of  the  college  of  the  past  generation  was 
of  real  interest.  Note,  therefore,  how  this  speech  brings 
out  thoughts  near  and  dear  to  every  one  present. 


SPECIAL  OCC.\SIOx\S  445 


PROFESSOR  ALFRED  GEORGE  COMPTON 

Professor  Compton's  ideal  of  his  own  biography  may  be 
found  in  "Who's  Who  in  America,"  and  seems  based  on  Mark 
Twain's  boyhood's  dairy  with  its  mif ailing  daily  entry  of  "Got 
up.  washed,  and  went  to  bed."  His  eoutribution  amounts  to 
"Born  so-and-so;  educated  public  schools  and  Free  Academy. 
'53;  taught  ever  since;  and  there  you  are."  Let  us  try  to  pad 
this  out  into  worthier  bulk. 

Alfred  George  Compton  was  "l)orn  within  the  sound  of  Bow 
Bells,"  in  Clipstone  street,  London,  February  1,  1835.  Part 
of  his  childhood  was  spent  in  his  father's  earlier  home  in  the 
([uaint  and  pretty  old  village  of  High  Wycombe,  a  market  town 
of  Buckinghamshire,  up  a  long  hill — indeed  my  cycling 
memories  insist  upon  that  "long" — above  Great  IMarlow  of  the 
little,  and  Henly  of  the  great  regattas.  In  1842  his  father. 
William  Compton,  a  maker  of  pianos,  brought  the  family  to 
America  in  the  ship  Mediator — a  voyage  of  thirty  days — and 
settled  in  New  York.  Their  first  home  was  in  Sixth  street, 
east  of  Avenue  D,  near  or  in  the  region  then  and  yet  known 
as  "the  Dry  Dock,"  and  near  the  thriving  shipyards  where 
Henry  Eckford  and  William  TI.  Webb  built  their  famous  old 
New  York  clippers,  and  George  Steers,  uncle  of  Compton 's 
chum,   designed  and  built  the  America. 

Child  and  product  of  New  York's  system  of  public  education, 
he  first  attended  Public  School  No.  4,  in  Stanton  street,  under 
Principal  Patterson,  and  then  "Old  No.  15,"  in  Fifth  street. 
of  which  Abraham  Van  Vleck.  father  of  a  well-known  public 
school  teacher  of  the  present  day.  was  principal.  Among  his 
class-mates  here  were  John  Hardy  and  James  R.  Steers,  who 
were  graduated  with  him  from  the  Free  Academy.  From  No. 
15  the  boy  went  to  School  No.  14,  then  known  as  "the  Poor- 
house  School,"  because,  after  its  first  building  was  burned,  and 
pending  the  completion  of  its  new  house  on  27th  street  near 
Third  avenue  (still  standing),  it  found  quarters  in  one  of  the 
fine  old  grey-stone  buildings  formerly  occupied  by  the  County 
Almshouses,  on  the  then  wooded  heights  of  Bellevue  fronting 
the  Ea.st  River  between  25th  and  27th  streets. 

In  this  half-rural  region  the  boy  fitted  for  the  newly  estab- 
lished Free  Academy.     Perhaps  it  may  encourage — 
"Some  forlorn  and  shipwrecked  brother" 
to   "take   heart   again,"   bail   out,    right   ship,    and   resume  his 

"Sailing  o'er  life's  solemn  main." 
to  learn  for  the  first  time  the  incredible  but  authentic  fact  that 
our  peerless   Compton,    who,   we   think,    axiomatically,    can    do 


446  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

anything,  failed  to  pass  the  first  entrance  examination,  held  in 
January,  1849. 

For  a  few  months  he  worked,  probably  as  practically  and 
as  humbly  as  the  youthful  Joseph  Porter,  afterward  K.  C.  B. — 
in  the  office  of  a  certain  Counsellor  Burr,  in  William  street; 
and  it  is  matter  of  curious  speculation  as  to  what  the  New 
York  bar,  and  perhaps  the  bench,  would  have  gained — we 
know  what  the  College  and  ourselves  would  have  lost — if  the 
sturdy,  freckle-faced  and  sandy-headed  little  IManhattanized 
Cockney   lad   of  fourteen  had   not   resolved   to   try    again ;   but 

try    he"  did,    and,    of    course .      The    students    admitted    in 

June  were  afterward  joined  with  those  admitted  in  the  previous 
January,  in  what  we  know  as  our  first  class,  '53. 

It  Avas  a  different  college  (though  in  the  same  building)  and 
a  different  New  York  then.  Renwick's'  Flemish  turrets,  then 
stuccoed  in  imitation  of  brownstone,  looked  over  green  fields 
and  scattered  houses  to  Union  Square  (which  was  half-way  to 
Greenwich),  and  to  the  roadside  tavern  on  the  site  of  the 
Fifth  Avenue  Hotel  (which  was  half-way  to  Chelsea),  and  to 
the  East  River.  Perhaps  Madison  Square,  planned  as  a 
"parade  ground"  to  reach  to  the  crest  of  Murray  Hill,  had 
not  then  been  cut  down  to  26th  street.  Third  avenue,  without 
even  car  tracks,  drew  two  straggling  strips  of  little  frame 
houses  past  Bull's  Head.  Harlemwards;  but  the  region  was 
more  rus  than  in   urhe. 

The  epoch-making  Academy  had  a  brave  little  force  of 
professors  as  path-breakers  in  those  days.  President  Webster, 
of  stately  memory,  and  the  great  Ross,  soldiers,  gentlemen,  and 
scholars  both,  brought  their  high  traditions  of  West  Point — 
then  in  the  first  flush  of  the  prestige  derived  from  the  astonish- 
ing work  of  Scott  and  his  West  Pointers  in  the  campaign 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  INIexico — traditions  which  have  left  their 
impress  in  thoroughness,  discipline,  and  devotion  to  this  day. 
Irving,  a  nephew  of  Washington  Irving,  was  Professor  of 
History  and  Belles  Lettres;  Docharty.  of  the  text-books, 
assistant  in  pure  mathematics.  In  German,  there  was  -Glau- 
bensklee;  in  Spanish.  ^Morales ;  and  in  French,  Roemer,  the 
ex-dragoon  officer,  bearing  a  fine  air  of  camps  and  courts,  who 
had  seen  service  in  the.  Low  Countries,  and,  as  an  attache  in 
favor  with  his  king,  had  visited  the  great  camp  where  Radetsky 
held  Lombary  for  Austria,  wlio.  Ilien  )i)i  hfou  sahreur,  lived  on 
for  us  to  see  him  as  line  ridlh  niousfaclic  riding  like  an  officer 
or  driving  e)i  gmndc  leiiuc  in  llic  park.  Later  came  Anthon  and 
Draper,  inheriting  names  to  conjui-e  with  in  the  circles  of  scholar- 

'1Mi("    old    Collcjic    buildiiiL:.    ilcsiiiiicd  by  tlic  famous  arcliitpct.  Ronwick, 
had  turrets. 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  447 

ship  of  that  New  York  (it  was  Anthon  who  collected  the  begin- 
nings of  our  little  library  and  knew  the  joy  of  the  bibliophile 
when  p]dward  Everett  Hale  came  to  him  to  hunt  authorities  not 
to  be  found  elsewhere)  ;  Dr.  Owen,  whose  Greek  texts  over  a  gen- 
eration ago  were  American  classics  and  were  used  even  in  Oxford  ; 
and  the  famous  Dr.  Wolcott  Gibbs,  soon  to  be  succeeded  by  the 
dashing,  all-accomplished  Doremus  of  international  fame,  whose 
lectures,  burning  their  diamonds  and  spending  their  thousands, 
were  the  talk  of  the  town,  so  that  the  papers  called  him  "the 
Barnum  of  Science";  and  good  old  dominies,  hearing  from  afar 
the  ominous  mutterings  of  Darwin  and  Huxley  and  Spencer, 
applauded  in  crowded  churches  his  "reconciliations"  of  evolution 
and  the  "six  days"  of  orthodoxy;  whose  little  arsenic-stained 
^larsh  tubes  decided  causes  celehres:  whose  improved  compressed 
granulated  gunpowder  blasted  out  eight  miles  of  the  JMont  Cenis 
tunnel  and,  marking  a  new  advance  in  ordnance,  made  him  a 
welcome  guest  at  the  Tuileries  under  the  Second  Empire ;  the 
pi-esident  of  the  Philharmonic  and  the  host  of  Ole  Bull  and 
Christine  Nilsson,  our  pet  host  o'  serenade  nights,  and  to  this 
day  unconquerably  alert,  interested  and  interesting.  Under  the 
pioneers  of  this  radical  and  brilliant  group  young  Compton 
studied,  not  through  tutors  or  assistants,  but  with  them  face  to 
face  in  daily  work,  especially  bearing  away  and  cherishing  the 
impression  of  Professor  Ross  as  the  giant  of  those  da.ys. 

'53  had  its  commencement  in  Niblo's  Theatre,  for  the  old 
Academy  of  IMusic,  sacred  to  a  long  series  of  bestowals  of  sheep- 
skins and  medals,  had  not  then  been  built.  Hardy,  his  classmate 
in  old  No.  15,  and  later  our  first  congressman,  had  the  Valedic- 
tory, and  Compton  Third  Honor,  his  theme  being  "Superstition." 
After  graduation  it  was  his  intention  to  become  a  civil  engineer, 
but  the  early  fall  brought  to  Hardy  and  Compton  offers  of  tutor- 
ships at  the  dazzling  salary  of  $400,  and  the  temptation  was  not 
to  be  resisted. 

From  '53  to  '69  he  taught  pretty  nearly  everything,  history 
and  rhetoric,  Wayland's  Moral  Philosophy,  Spanish,  Hart's 
Catevhisni  on  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.;  and,  during  the  war. 
field  and  permanent  fortification  and  stereotomy,  till,  in  '69.  on 
the  failure  of  health  of  Professor  Nichols,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  Applied  ]\Iathematics,  which  department,  as  amended 
from  time  to  time,  has  lieen  the  field  of  his  life-work  and  peculiar 
success  ever  since. 

Professor  Anthon 's  "Song  of  the  Birds,"  sang  of  our  alumni 
as  having  "o'er  Bartlett's  puzzles  banished  sleep";  and  Bart- 
lett's  Analytical  Mechanics;  Acoustics,  Optics  and  Spherical 
Astronomy  will  forever  be  associated  by  all  graduates,  from  the 
early   '70 's  on,  with  the  Professor's  personality  and  crystalline 


448  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

demonstratious.  Through  the  great  days  of  the  '60 's  and  '70 's. 
Calculus  and  Bartlett  without  mitigation  were  "required."  The 
sons  of  York  in  those  days  had  no  "option"  with  which  to  make 
glorious  summer  of  the  winter  of  their  discontent,  as  some  of  us 
later  chaps  had;  and  the  veterans  say  it  was  "man's  work." 
Bartlett  was  then  a  new  professor  al  West  Point,  his  books 
were  new,  and  ours  was  probably  the  first  college  after  the  V.  S. 
iMilitary  Academy  to  use  them.  So  Professor  Bartlett  used  to 
visit  the  College  with  great  interest  then  (like  the  hero  of  Cole- 
ridge's ballad)  — 

"To  see  how  the  work  went  on." 

Surely,  he  found  the  work  in  the  liands  of  a  prince  of 
demonstrators. 

The  .years  since  '69  have  been  crowded  ones  for  the  professor. 
It  is  in  line  with  this  truth  that  these  laborious  years,  than 
which  one  can  imagine  none  in  the  life  of  any  teacher  more 
fruitful  in  the  immeasurable  harvest  of  influence,"  give  little  data 
to  the  biographer.  It  has  certainly  been  fortunate  for  us.  but 
unfortunate  for  the  fame  of  our  professors  as  independent 
investigators  and  authors,  that,  to  an  unparalleled  extent,  they 
have  been  compelled  to  give  all  their  time  and  strength  to  class- 
room recitations.  As  Agassiz  was  "too  busy  to  make  money," 
Professor  Compton  has  been  literally  too  busy  to  make  himself 
famous  outside  of  the  circle  of  his  students,  and.  like  that 
Avonderful  old  man,  Dwight,  of  Columbia  Law  School,  his  sur- 
passing excellence  as  a  teacher  and  his  devotion  to  the  fascinating 
task  of  direct-contact  work,  has  probably  lost  the  world  much, 
and  intrusted  his  monument  only  to  the  memory  of  his  pupils. 
Since  1869,  he  has  taught  large  sections  never  less  than  fifteen 
hours  a  week  without  an  assistant  to  prepare  his  demonstrations. 
For  eighteen  years  after  '69.  he  conducted,  outside  of  his  regular 
hours,  a  three-year  post-graduate  course  in  civil  engineering, 
work  remembered  as  priceless  by  his  post-graduate  students. 
Breaking  in  his  long  day  only  by  a  modest  revel  at  the  historic 
Chellborg's  lunch  room,  it  has  generally  been  well  towards  even- 
ing that  he  has  started  homeward.  During  the  last  twenty-one 
years  he  has  lal)ored  for  and  obtained,  laid-out,  planned,  super- 
intended, even  written  text-books  for,  the  entire  mechanical  and 
manual  training  departments  and  courses.  This  field,  always  in 
his  thoughts  and  plans,  was  especially  em])hasized  to  his  atten- 
tion by  the  Kiissian  exhibit  at  the  Centennial  Exhibit icm  of  3876. 
Building  on  this  and  the  work  of  Belford  in  Chicago  and  of  the 
Washington  Fniversity  in  St.  Louis,  he  has  made  the  addition 
and  development  of  this  department. his  own  especial  contribution 
to  the  College. 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  449 

In  '69,  with  Cleveland  Abbe  '('57),  he  conducted  an  eclii)se 
t'xpedition  to  Sioux  P'all.s  City.  Dakota  Territory  (then  a  hamlet 
of  twenty  houses),  and  reported  it  to  the  Cincinnati  Observatory, 
and  in  '78.  he  led  a  few  of  his  students  to  Colorado  and  observed 
an  eclipse  and  reported  it  to  the  Xaval  Observatory  at  Washing- 
Ion.  He  has  reported  a  transit  of  ^lercury  and  done  such  other 
astronomical  work  as  the  limited  facilities  at  his  disposal  would 
permit.  And  for  many  years  has  he  not  labored  early  and  late, 
faithfully,  and  at  last  successfully,  for  the  new  College  ?  Hence, 
his  publications  have  been  few:  A  Manual  of  Logarithmic  Com- 
putation,  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York,  1881;  First  Lessons  in 
Wood  Working,  American  Book  Co. ;  First  Lessons  in  Metal 
M'orking,  AA^iley,  1890  ;  The  Speed-Lathe  (with  de  Groodt),  Wiley, 
1898;  Some  Common  Errors  of  Speech,  Putnams,  1898  (intended 
as  an  introduction  to  another  work  on  English  yet  in  ]\ISS.) 

Upon  the  resignation  of  General  Webb  in  1902,  and  pending 
the  selection  and  installation  of  a  new  president,  the  executive 
duties  of  the  presidency  have  been  intrusted  by  the  Board  of 
Trustees  to  Professor  Compton.  under  the  title  of  Supervising 
Professor,  and,  later,  of  Acting  President.  This  temporary  head- 
ship of  his  Alma  ]\Iater  crowns  a  half-century  of  unbroken  service 
with  honor  to  the  Trustees,  the  College,  and  himself,  but  it  is  the 
devout  prayer  of  every  man  that  has  ever  sat  under  him  that, 
for  the  sake  of  those  to  come,  the  end  of  his  teaching  may  not 
befall  for  many  a  long  year,  and  such  is  the  abiding  triumph 
of  his  youthfulness  that  the  prayer  is  surely  answered  at  its 
making. 

Busy  as  the  years  have  been,  loyalty  to  a  sacred  trust  of 
friendship  has  imposed  yet  another  burclen,  which  he  has  borne 
as  buoyantly  and  successfully  as  every  other.  Space  forbids  the 
story,  but  Compton 's  devotion  to  a  friend,  a  Cuban  patriot,  whose 
great  estates  were  confiscated  during  the  insurrections  of  '69, 
saved  the  property  to  his  widow,  an  American  lady.  It  involved 
journeys  to  Cuba,  work  in  Spanish,  endless  litigation  in  Spanish, 
Cuban,  and  American  tribunals,  twenty  years  of  strenuous 
trusteeship,  and  two  .years  of  accounting,  but,  as  always,  he  did 
it  and  did  it  well. 

He  commands  French,  German,  and  Spanish,  and  is  a  member 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  and  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

Professor  Compton  married,  June  10,  1874,  ]Miss  Francis  E. 
Feeks,  formerly  a  teacher  in  the  Normal  College,  and  has  a  son 
and  two  daughters  living. 

Has  this  indefatigable  worker  found  no  time  to  play  ?  Whether 
it  is  the  English  in  him,  or  simply  because  such  a  "first-class  all- 
around  man"  must  know  the  .I'oys  of  the  open   air.  this  busy 


450  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

man  has  won  and  saved  the  secret  of  buoyant  strength  and  cheer- 
ful, lasting  youthfulness — recreation.  Of  all  manly  sports,  three 
stand  supreme  in  their  manliness,  their  freedom  from  cruelty  and 
the  excitement  of  competition,  their  insistence  upon  self-reliance, 
courage,  brains,  skill,  and  the  facing  of  the  individual  man  with 
the  beauties  and  hostile  powers  of  Nature — each  finding  its  finest 
and  highest  development  when  played  single-handed,  or,  at  least, 
without  paid  or  professional  assistance— seamanship,  moun- 
taineering, and  woodsmanship,  or  forest-cruising.  Of  these, 
although  he  managed  to  get  in  some  good  Alpine  climbing  in 
3902,  the  last-named  has  been  Compton's  especial  field  and  joy. 
In  1856,  inspired  by  an  article  in  Silliman's  Journal,  on  "The 
Exploration  of  the  Adirondacks,"  Compton,  with  Theodore 
Banta  of  the  class  of  '53,  made  his  first  trip  into  the  then 
untraveled,  uncharted,  and  almost  unknown  north  woods.  On 
the  first  trip  he  found  a  local  guide  and  climbed  IMt.  INIarcy. 
Since  then,  for  many  seasons,  he  has  traversed  the  Adirondacks 
without  map  or  guide  or  gun,  finding  his  own  way  like  the 
Indians,  courcnrs  du  hois,  and  trappers  of  our  boyhood's  books, 
and  living  the  Thoreau  life  next  to  Nature.  Like  Thoreau,  carry- 
ing perhaps  one  choice  book  in  his  pack  and  more  in  his  head, 
and  preferring  watching  a  bird  or  a  wild  creature  to  killing  it, 
and  loving  the  scent  of  the  woods  and  his  fire  too  keenly  to  miss 
them  in  tobacco,  and,  like  "Walt  Whitman,  "loafing  and  inviting 
his  soul,"  he  has  drunk  deep  of  the  life-restoring  spell  of  the 
forest.  One  season,  by  his  campfires,  he  taught  himself  the 
integral  calculus,  but,  iDetter,  through  scores  of  threaded  camps 
on  lake  side  and  mountain  shoulder,- he  has  learned  to  "renew  his 
youth  like  the  eagles." 

Such  noble  sport  demands  the  freedom  of  the  long  vacation. 
Between  whiles,  he  does  a  bit  of  tennis  and  is  a  keen  hand  at 
this  latter-day,  impossibly  scientific  croquet,  which  seems  a  sort 
of  outdoor  long-distance  billiards — the  crociuet  of  patient  cranks 
with  quite  impossible  eyes  and  nerves  and  wrists. 

It  has  always  been  a  pet  fancy  of  mine  that  if  Compton  were 
washed  up  like  Robinson  Crusoe  on  some  great  new  island  with 
the  necessary  natural  resources  and  given  a  few  tools  from  the 
ship,  and  say  a  century  of  life  and  unskilled  labor  without  limit, 
but  without  a  book,  he  could  reproduce  civilization — like  the 
scientist  in  Jules  Verne's  L'llc  Mystcnuse — "only  more  so"; 
that,  sooner  or  later,  he  M'ould  be  running  a  locomotive  built  by 
himself  out  of  the  ])rodu('ts  of  his  own  mining,  playing  Chopin 
on  a  Com])t()n  ]>iano,  putting  little  brown  Juniors  and  Seniors 
through  ]^artl(^tt,  dictating  from  memory  a  few  European  liter- 
atures to  ishnid-made  ph()n()gra|)hs  and  typewriters,  and — to 
bring  my  undcr-gi-aduate  di-cam  down  to  date — INIarconigraphing 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  451 

back  to  New  York  to  see  how  the  family  was  getting  along  and 
achdsing  the  sailing  of  a  steamer  equipped  Avith  island-made 
chronometer,  sextant,  and  compass,  and  Compton's  Bowditch's 
Navigator  (of  conrse  supplied  with  Compton's  own  logarithms) 
— and  having  through  it  all  the  serenest  of  good  times,  and  never 
once  by  any  chance  hurried  or  worried,  out  of  temper,  idle,  sick, 
or  old. 

The  piano  is,  perha])s  hereditarily,  his  instrument.  He  wears 
his  hair  too  normally  to  be  a  virtuoso,  but  plays  as  a  gentleman 
should,  and  a  scholar — with  sufficient  technique  to  make  avail- 
able and  enjoyable  his  ranging  command  of  the  composers. 
Imagine,  you  who  have  felt  the  charm  of  his  class-room  clemon- 
strations,  the  professor  reading  you  Bach  or  Beethoven. 

Seated  thus  at  his  keyboard  with  his  loved  ones  around  him, 
let  us  leave  the  picture  of  him,  wishing  him  many  a  long  and 
happy  year,  rich  in  the  memory  of  many  tasks  of  many  kinds 
well  done,  and  in  the  loyal  love  of  the  thousands  of  his  "boys," 
who  are  better  equipped  doers  of  the  world's  work  for  liaving 
sat  under  him  and  truer  men  and  gentlemen  for  knowing  him. 


2.     Observations  on   the   Personal   Tribute    (Eulogy) 

1.  Preparation. — KnoAv  tlie  man  through  close,  per- 
sonal contact.  Gather  all  information  you  can,  not 
experienced  by  you,  from  others  who  did  have  the  direct 
experience.  If  anything  must  be  "read  up,"  be  very 
thorough  in  the  reading;  get  all  aspects  and  master 
everything  most  thoroughly. 

2.  Organization. — As  indicated  in  Lesson  5,  page  69, 
the  general  plan  of  a  eulogy  is  either  chronological  in 
order  of  material,  or  according  to  some  scheme  of 
analysis  for  the  elements  or  virtues  of  the  character  and 
attainments.  Sometimes  also,  as  in  the  example  just 
given,  the  two  are  combined.  Observe,  in  the  example 
just  given,  the  effective  reserving  of  the  enthusiastic 
discussion  of  traits  for  the  end,  after  matters  of  history 
had  been  disposed  of. 

3.  Details. — (a)  Select  those  things  which  will  appeal 
strongly  to  the  audience  addressed,  (b)  Illustrations 
and    references    should    be    made    with    the    particular 


452  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

audience's  experience  and  mental  equipment  in  mind. 
(c)  As  far  as  possible,  be  concrete  rather  than  abstract; 
use  images  rather  than  concepts.  Even  when  bringing 
out  some  abstract  quality,  it  is  often  better  to  indicate 
what  is  meant  by  a  concrete  deed  or  situation,  than  to 
expound  it  in  general  terms.  (d)  Be  intimate  and 
personal  in  your  treatment  rather  than  lofty,  distant, 
and  grand. 

4.  Tone. — The  tone  is  established  by  the  occasion. 
The  speech  just  given  is  jolly  or  at  least  happy.  The 
subject  of  the  address  is  present  and  all  are  happy.  If 
such  a  speech  were  made  at  a  farewell  dinner  or  time 
of  retirement  from  office,  the  tone  would  be  less  jovial, 
somewhat  gentler,  and  more  mellow.  A  funeral  address 
may  use  data  similar  to  that  just  given,  but  the  tone 
should  be  more  solemn  and  gravely  gentle. 

3.     IxArouEAL  Address 

The  general  purpose  of  the  inaugural  address  is  to 
outline  policies  to  be  pursued  in  office.  The  tone  is 
different  from  that  of  a  jjre-election  promise  needed  to 
obtain  approval  and,  possibly,  votes.  The  place  has  been 
secured  and  the  tone  of  the  address  is  firm  and  direct. 

There  are,  as  a  rule,  two  things  to  be  recorded  in  such 
a  speech,  (1)  an  analysis  of  the  situation  faced  because 
of  past  developments  and  (2)  an  outline  of  methods  or 
policies  in  the  future.  Of  course,  proper  adaptation  to 
audience,  occasion,  and  office  must  be  made.  The  usual 
principles  of  arrangement,  explained  in  Lesson  5,  apply. 

The  Second  Inaugural  Address  of  Lincoln  may  be 
taken  as  an  example.  We  shall  give  here  the  opening 
and  all  of  the  speech  up  to  the  part  already  printed  in 
Lesson  20,  page  'Mu.  Kead  l)oth  parts  so  as  to  get  a 
combined    ini])ression   of  tlie  entire  s))eecli. 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  453 


LIxVCOLN  S   SECOND   INAUtUTKAL    ADDRESS 

I.  Fellow  Count  rumen:  At  this  second  appearing  to  take 
the  oath  of  the  presidential  office,  there  is  less  occasion  for 
an  extended  address  than  there  was  at  the  first.  Then  a 
statement,  somewhat  in  detail,  of  a  course  to  be  pursued, - 
seemed  fitting  and  proper.  Now^,  at  the  expiration  of  four 
3'ears,  during  which  public  declarations  have  been  constantly 
called  forth  on  every  point  and  phase  of  the  great  contest 
which  still  absorbs  the  attention  and  engrossi^s  the  energies 
of  the  nation,  little  that  is  new  could  be  i)resented.  The 
progress  of  our  arms,  upon  which  all  else  chiefly  depends, 
is  as  well  known  to  the  public  as  to  myself ;  and  it  is,  I  trust, 
reasonably  satisfactory  and  encouraging  to  all.  With  high 
hopes  for  the  future,  no  prediction  in  regard  to  it  is  to  be 
ventured. 

II.  On- the  occasion  corresponding  to  this,  four  years  ago,  all 
thoughts  were  anxiously  directed  to  an  impending  civil 
war.  All  dreaded  it — all  sought  to  avert  it.  While  the 
inaugural  address  was  being  delivered  from  this  place, 
devoted  altogether  to  saving  the  Union  without  war,  insur- 
gent agents  were  in  this  city  seeking  to  destroy  it  without 
war — seeking  to  dissolve  the  Union  and  divide  effects,  by 
negotiation.  Both  parties  deprecated  war ;  but  one  of  them 
would  rather  make  war  than  let  the  nation  survive;  and  the 
other  would  accept  war  rather  than  let  it  perish.  And  the 
war  came. 

III.  One  eighth  of  the  whole  population  were  colored  slaves, 
not  distributed  generally  over  the  Union,  but  localized  in  the 
southern  part  of  it.  These  slaves  constituted  a  peculiar  and 
powerful  interest.  All  knew  that  this  interest  was,  some- 
how, the  cause  of  the  war.  To  strengthen,  perpetuate,  and 
extend  this  interest  was  the  object  for  which  the  insurgents 
would  rend  the  Union,  even  by  war;  while  the  government 
claimed  no  right  to  do  more  than  to  restrict  the  territorial 
enlargement  of  it. 

(Now  turn  to  page  367,  Lesson  20,  for  the  rest  of  the 
speech.) 

Note  that  Lincoln  faces  one  situation  only,  the  war; 
with  one  cause,  slavery ;  to  he  settled  in  one  way,  con- 
tinned,  effective  war  until  peace  without  slavery  is 
attained. 


4.54  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

The  following  is  a  typical  outline  whieli  may  be  nseil 
at  varions  iaaugriral  occasions. 
L     Intnxiuction  appropriate  to  audience  and  occasion. 
EL     Body  of  the  speeck. 

1.  The   situation  faced  by  the   body,   society,   or 

organization. 

2.  Policies  to  be  pursued. 

(a)  Greneral.  guiding  principles. 

(b)  Specific  acts  or  lines  of  conduct. 

3.  Prosi>ects  of  success. 
TTT.     Conclusion. 

1.  Appeal  for  co-operation. 

2.  Pledge  to  conscientious  service. 

3.  Trust  in  desired  outcome. 

Addresses  made  on  retirement  from  office  are,  in  cer- 
tain respects,  similar.  The  outline  just  given  may  be 
used  with  the  following  changes  and  additions.  (II-l) 
Beview  what  was  accomplished  during  the  course  of 
administration.  (II-2)  Advice  concerning  future  develop- 
ments, (in)  Thank  those  who  co-operated  during  the 
term  of  office  just  expired;  express  confidence  in  what 
the  future  will  bring  forth. 

4.     Spi3:ch    with    a    Peacttcajl    Object    to    a    ^Iixed 
audtexce 

Among  the  most  difficult-  speeches  to  make  is  one  to 
a  popular  audience  upon  a  vital  issue.  Here  all  the 
resources  of  the  speaker  must  be  called  into  service. 
TVe  give  as  the  example  for  study,  Daniel  O'Connell's 
famous  address  on  Tara  HiU,  to  what  was  one  of  the 
greatest  mass  meetings  the  world  has  ever  seen.  It  is 
comparable  with  the  mighty  efforts  of  Demosthenes 
with  th^  citizen  gatherings  of  Athens.  While  reading 
it,  have  in  mind  the  fact  that  O'Connell  was  trying  to 
stir  resentment  against  the  Union  and  at  the  same  time 


SPECIAL  OCCASIO^CS  ^5 

•>  restiam  ads  d  TioleiKe.    Hkme^  it  k  «£E&«h  to  stir 
a  erow^d  so  tlat  all  will  feel  witk  tke  orator.  -~ 

diffieolt  to  keep  its  eoiiseqiievt  aets  vi^im  ' 
of  ratioaial  restraint.    Olfi^rre  hoc  O'Coanel 

In    paragrapli    I,    he    estabfisbes    tie    r^— 

between  Umsel^  Aose  present,  aad  tke  proii^i^  i^^ 
fstee.  Ofaserve  kow  he  secures  interest  and  attemko 
ani  obtains  a  favorable  attitnde  toward  humt4f  iSi^ 
prin^des  in  Lessons  3  and  -L'     The  body  c:  :- 

m^it  is  in  U  to  ^^I  wrtii  xh^  siEmraary  im  .  -- 

scheme  of  arrai^einent  <see>  L^-s&om  5  for  |Minefp4ek^  is 
a  devekfnnait  c^  general  jHindples  of  rig^  in  IL  to 
anthoritative  siqiport  of  the  jmneqtk^.  TIT,  and  Aove 
to  a  pres^itaticn  of  specific  act^  of  an  obje^ionable 
character:  in  IV,  fraud  and  violence:  in  V.  bribay  ^id 
mon^j  e»:»rnipli<Mi:  in  VL  the  destmctkm  of  ifcinstry. 

Tbe  summary  in  VII  carries  oet  mles  4&c»ss€*i  m 
Lesson  6.  e^>eoaIly  page  9L  while  the  rest  of  the  spi5€*^ 
is  a  skinfol  a^>eal  fsee  Le^^m  6.  pase  96.  onk  to  the 
particular  audience  he  was  addres^ng. 

Bead  that  perflation  Vm  to  XL  ear^olly  and  note 
the  prejudices  and  deep  efncitioi^  cm  which  he  f^aj^. 
Obse-rve^  how  he  refers  to  TTeflii^on  on  tke  <»e  hand  an>l 
the  Queen  €m  Ae  oth»-.  to  the  soldie^rs  and  to  the  B3irUp»- 
men.  and  how  he  turns  to  his  own  advanta^  r^siipns 
sentimf»it  and  love  of  country.  Toward  1^  emd  ^ 
makes  a  most  effective  ms*  €*f  mass  response  as  &e  basis 
of  final  agre^n^t  and  obe«fience.  »Fr»r  pTiisepI^.  5*e^ 
Lesson  16  and  espeaally  pages  f96.  fi*?.  f5•^-  > 

TMs  is  the  last  exanq^  wc  ^all  oSer.  Study  it  well 
an*!  e&ieavor  to  identify  in  it  the  carrying  o«t  of 
r»rineipfes  developed  in  tfiis  course  of  ksso«s  in  Effective 
Pulfie  Speaking.  Study  it  also  with  a  Tiew  to  piepari^ 
original  speeches  alozLg  similar  Ii5?es-  Make  a  earefol 
ni>teboci:  analvsis. 


456  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

REPEAL   OF  THE   UNION 
UaiiiL'I  O'Cuini.'ll 

I.  Fclloic-1  risk  men:  It  would  1)l'  the  extreme  of  atfectation 
in  me  to  suggest  that  I  have  not  some  elaim  to  be  the  leader 
of  this  majestic  meeting.  It  would  be  worse  than  affectation  ; 
it  would  be  driveling  folly,  if  I  were  not  to  feel  the  awful 
responsibilit}'  to  my  country  and  mj^  Creator  which  the  part 
I  have  taken  in  this  might.y  movement  imposes  on  me.  Yes ; 
I  feel  the  tremendous  nature  of  that  responsibility.  Ireland 
is  roused  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Her  multitudinous 
population  has  but  one  expression  and  one  wish,  and  that 
is  for  the  extinction  of  the  Union  and  the  restoration  of  her 
nationality.  (A  voice:  "No  compromise!")  AVho  talks  of 
compromise?  I  have  come  here,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  schoolboy's  attempt  at  declamatory  eloquence,  not 
to  exaggerate  the  historical  importance  of  the  spot  on  which 
we  now  stand,  or  to  endeavor  to  revive  in  your  recollection 
any  of  those  poetic  imaginings  respecting  it  which  have  been 
as  familiar  as  household  words.  But  this  it  is  impossible  to 
conceal  or  deny,  that  Tara  is  surrounded  l)y  historical 
reminiscences  which  give  it  an  importance  worthy  of  being 
considered  by  everyone  who  approaches  it  for  political  pur- 
poses, and  an  elevation  in  the  public  mind  which  no  other 
part  of  Ireland  possesses.  We  are  standing  upon  Tara  oJ 
the  Kings ;  the  spot  where  the  monarchs  of  Ireland  were 
elected,  and  where  the  chieftains  of  Ireland  bound  them- 
selves, by  the  most  solemn  pledges  of  honor,  to  protect  their 
native  land  against  the  Dane  and  every  stranger.  This  was 
emphatically  the  spot  from  which  emanated  every  social 
power  and  legal  authority  by  which  the  force  of  the  entire 
country  was  concentrated  for  the  purposes  of  national 
defence. 

II.  On  this  spot  I  have  a  most  important  duty  to  i)erform.  I 
here  y)rotest,  in  the  name  of  my  country  and  in  the  name  of 
my  God,  against  the  unfounded  and  unjust  Union.  My 
proposition  to  Ireland  is  that  the  Union  is  not  binding  on 
her  people.  It  is  void  in  conscience  and  in  principle,  and 
as  a  matter  of  constitutional  law  I  attest  these  facts.  Yes, 
I  attest  by  everything  that  is  sacred,  without  being  profane, 
the  truth  of  my  assertions.  There  is  no  real  union  between 
the  two  countries,  and  my  ])roposition  is  that  there  was  no 
authority  given  to  anyone  to  pass  the  Act  of  Union.  Neither 
the  English  nor  the  Irish  Legislature  was  competent  to  pass 
that  Act,  and  I  arraign  it  on  these  grounds.  One  authority 
alone  could  make  that  Act  binding,  and  that  was  the  voice 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  457 

of  the  people  of  Ireland.  The  Irish  Parliament  Avas  elected 
to  make  laws  and  not  to  make  legislatures ;  and,  therefore,  it 
had  no  right  to  assume  the  authority  to  pass  the  Act  of 
Union.  The  Iri.sh  Parliament  was  elected  by  the  Irish  people 
as  their  trustees;  the  people  were  their  masters,  and  the 
members  were  their  servants,  and  had  no  right  to  transfer 
the  property  to  any  other  power  on  earth.  If  the  Irish 
Parliament  had  transferred  its  power  of  legislation  to  the 
French  Chamber,  would  any  man  assert  that  the  Act  was 
valid?  Would  any  man  be  mad  enough  to  assert  it;  would 
any  man  be  insane  enough  to  assert  it;  and  would  the 
insanity  of  the  assertion  be  mitigated  by  sending  any  number 
of  members  to  the  French  Chamber?  Everybody  must 
admit  that  it  would  not.  What  care  I  for  France?— and  I 
care  as  little  for  England  as  for  France,  for  both  countries 
are  foreign  to  me.  The  very  highest  authority  in  England 
has  proclaimed  us  to  be  aliens  in  blood,  in  religion,  and  in 
language.  (Groans.)  Do  not  groan  him  for  having  proved 
himself  honest  on  one  occasion  by  declaring  my  opinion. 
But  to  show  the  invalidity  of  the  Union  I  could  quote  the 
authority  of  Locke  on  "Parliament."  I  will,  however,  only 
detain  you  by  quoting  the  declaration  of  Lord  Plunket  in 
the  Irish  Pcirliament,  who  told  them  that  they  had  no 
authority  to  transfer  the  legislation  of  the  country  to  other 
hands.  As  well,  said  he.  might  a  maniac  imagine  that  the 
blow  by  which  he  destroys  his  wretched  body  annihilates  his 
immortal  soul,  as  you  to  imagine  that  you  can  annihilate  the 
soul  of  Ireland — her  constitutional  rights. 
III.  I  need  not  detain  you  by  quoting  authorities  to  show  the 
invalidity  of  the  LTnion.  I  am  here  the  representative  of 
the  Irish  nation,  and  in  the  name  of  that  moral,  temperate, 
virtuous  and  religious  people,  I  proclaim  the  Union  a  nullity. 
Saurin,  who  had  been  the  representative  of  the  Tory  party 
for  twenty  years,  distinctly  declared  that  the  Act  of  Union 
was  invalid.  He  said  that  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  had 
no  right,  had  no  power,  to  pass  the  Union,  and  that  thv 
people  of  Ireland  would  be  justified,  the  first  opportunity 
that  presented  itself,  in  effecting  its  repeal.  So  they  are. 
The  authorities  of  the  country  were  charged  Avith  the  enact- 
ment, the  alteration,  or  the  administration  of  its  laws.  These 
were  their  powers ;  but  they  had  no  authority  to  alter  or 
overthrow  the  Constitution.  I  therefore  proclaim  the  nullity 
of  the  Union.  In  the  face  of  Europe  I  proclaim  its  nullity. 
In  the  face  of  France,  especially,  and  of  Spain.  T  proclaim 
its  nullity;  and  I  proclaim  its  nullity  in  the  face  of  the 
liberated  States  of  America. 


458  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

IV.  I  go  farther,  and  proclaim  its  nullity  on  the  grounds  of 
the  iniquitous  means  by  which  it  was  carried.  It  was 
effected  by  the  most  flagrant  fraud.  A  rebellion  was  pro- 
voked by  the  Government  of  the  day,  in  order  that  they 
might  have  a  pretext  for  crushing  the  liberties  of  Ireland. 
There  was  this  addition  to  the  fraud,  that  at  the  time  of  the 
Union,  Ireland  had  no  legal  protection.  The  Habeas  Corpus 
Act  was  suspended,  and  the  lives  and  liberties  of  the  people 
were  at  the  mercy  of  courts  martial.  You  remember  the 
shrieks  of  those  who  suffered  under  martial  law.  One  day, 
from  Trim,  the  troops  marched  out  and  made  desolate  the 
country  around  them.  No  man  was  safe  during  the  entire 
time  the  Union  was  under  discussion.  The  next  fraud  was 
that  the  Irish  people  were  not  allowed  to  meet  to  remonstrate 
against  it.  Two  count}^  meetings,  convened  by  the  High 
Sheriff's  of  these  counties,  pursuant  to  requisitions  presented 
to  them,  were  dispersed  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  In 
King's  County  the  High  Sheriff  called  the  people  together 
in  the  Court-house,  and  Colonel  Connor  of  the  North  Cork 
Militia,  supported  by  artillery  and  a  troop  of  horse,  entered 
the  Court-house  at  the  head  of  200  of  his  regiment  and 
turned  out  the  Sheriff,  Magistrates,  Grand  Jurors,  and  free- 
holders assembled  to  petition  against  the  enactment  of  the 
Union.  In  Tipperary  a  similar  scene  took  place.  A  meeting 
convened  by  the  High  Sheriff'  was  dispersed  at  the  point  of 
the  bayonet.  Thus  public  sentiment  was  stifled;  and  if  there 
was  a  compact,  as  is  alleged,  it  is  void  on  account  of  the 
fraud  and  force  by  which  it  was  carried.  But  the  voice  of 
Ireland,  though  forcibly  suppressed  at  public  meetings,  was 
not  altogether  dumb.  Petitions  Avere  presented  against  the 
Union  to  which  were  attached  no  less  than  770.000  signa- 
tures. And  there  were  not  3,000  signatures  for  the  Union, 
notwithstanding  all  the  Government  could  do. 

V.  My  next  impeachment  against  the  Union  is  the  gross 
corruption  with  which  it  was  carried.  No  less  than  £1,275,- 
000  was  spent  upon  the  rotten  boroughs,  and  £2,000,000  was 
given  in  direct  bribery.  There  was  not  one  office  that  was 
not  made  instrumental  to  the  carrying  of  the  measure.  Six 
or  seven  judges  were  raised  to  the  Bench  for  the  votes  they 
gave  in  its  support ;  and  no  less  than  twelve  bishops  were 
elevated  to  tlie  Episcopal  Bench  for  having  taken  the  side 
of  the  Union  ;  for  corruption  tlien  spared  nothing  to  effect  its 
purpose — corruption  was  never  carried  so  far;  and  if  this 
is  to  be  binding  on  the  Irish  nation,  there  is  no  use  in 
honesty  at  all.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  the  means  employed,  the 
enemies  of  Irelaiul  did  nol   succeed  at  once.     There  was  a 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  459 

majority  of  eleven  against  tlie  Union  the  first  time.  J  hit 
before  the  proposition  was  brought  torward  a  second  time, 
members  who  could  not  be  influenced  to  vote  for  the 
measure  were  bribed  to  vacate  their  seats,  to  which  a  number 
of  English  and  Scotch  officers,  brought  over  for  the  pur- 
pose, Avere  elected,  and  by  their  votes  the  Union  was  carried. 
In  the  name  of  the  great  Irish  nation  I  proclaim  it  a  nullity. 
At  the  time  of  the  Union  the  national  debt  of  Ireland  was 
only  £20.000,000.  The  debt  of  England  was  £440.000,000. 
England  took  upon  herself  one-half  of  the  Irish  debt,  but 
she  placed  upon  Ireland  one-half  of  the  £440.000,000.  Eng- 
land since  that  period  has  doubled  her  debt,  and  admitting 
a  proportionate  increase  against  Ireland,  the  Irish  debt 
would  not  now  be  more  than  £40,000,000;  and  you  may 
believe  me  when  I  say  it  in  the  name  of  the  great  Irish 
people,  that  Ave  will  never  pay  one  shilling  more.  In  fact, 
Ave  owe  but  £30,000,  as  is  clearly  demonstrated  in  a  book 
lately  published  by  a  near  and  dear  relative  of  mine.  jNIr. 
John  O'Connell,  the  member  for  Kilkenny.  I  am  proud  that 
a  son  of  mine  Avill  be  able,  Avhen  the  repeal  is  carried,  ta 
meet  any  of  England's  financiers,  and  to  prove  to  them  the 
gross  injustice  inflicted  upon  Ireland. 

^^I.  My  next  impeachment  of  the  Union  is  its  destructive  and 
deleterious  effect  upon  the  industry  and  prosperity  of  the 
country.  The  county  of  ]\Ieath  Avas  once  studded  Avith  noble 
residences.  "What  is  it  noAV  ?  Even  on  the  spot  Avhere  Avhat 
is  called  the  great  Duke  of  Wellington  Avas  born,  instead  of 
a  splendid  castle  or  noble  residence,  the  briar  and  the 
bramble  attest  the  treachery  that  produced  them.  You 
remember  the  once  prosperous  linen-weavers  of  ]\Ieath. 
There  is  scarcely  a  penny  paid  to  them  uoaa^  In  short,  the 
Union  struck  doAvn  the  manufacturers  of  Ireland.  The  Com- 
missioners of  the  Poor  LaAv  prove  that  120,000  persons  in 
Ireland  are  in  a  state  of  destitution  during  the  greater  part 
of  each  year.  Hoav  is  it  that  in  one  of  the  most  fertile 
countries  in  the  AA^orld  this  should  occur? 

VII.  The  Irish  ne\"er  broke  any  of  their  bargains  nor  their 
treaties,  and  England  never  kept  one  that  Avas  made  on  her 
part.  There  is  noAV  a  union  of  the  legislatures,  but  I  deny 
that  there  is  a  union  of  the  nations,  and  I  again  proclaim 
the  Act  a  nullity.  England  has  given  to  her  people  a  muni- 
cipal reform  extensive  and  satisfactory,  AA-hile  to  Ireland  she 
gives  a  municipal  reform  crippled  and  Avorthless.  But  the 
I'^nion  is  more  a  nullity  on  ecclesiastical  grounds :  for  why 
should  the  great  majority  of  the  people  of  Ireland  pay  for 
the  support  of  a  religion  AAdiich  they  do  not  believe  to  be 


4G0  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

true!  The  Union  was  carried  by  the  most  abominable  cor- 
ruption and  briberj^  by  financial  robbery  on  an  extensive 
scale,  which  makes  it  the  more  heinous  and  oppressive ;  and 
the  result  is  that  Ireland  is  saddled  with  an  unjust  debt,  her 
commerce  is  taken  from  her,  her  trade  is  destroyed,  and  a 
large  number  of  her  people  thus  reduced  to  misery  and 
distress. 
VIII.  Yes.  the  people  of  Ireland  are  cruelly  oppressed,  and  are 
we  tamely  to  stand  by  and  allow  our  dearest  interests  to  be 
trampled  upon?  Are  we  not  to  ask  for  redress!  Yes,  we 
will  ask  for  that  which  alone  will  give  us  redress — a  parlia- 
ment of  our  own.  And  you  will  have  it  too,  if  you  are  cjuiet 
and  orderly,  and  join  with  me  in  my  present  struggle. 
(Cheers.)  Your  cheers  will  be  convej^ed  to  England.  Yes, 
the  majority  of  this  mighty  multitude  will  be  taken  there. 
Old  Wellington  began  by  threatening  us,  and  talked  of  civil 
war,  but  he  says  nothing  about  it  now.  He  is  getting  inlet 
holes  made  in  stone  barracks.  Now  only  think  of  an  old 
general  doing  such  a  thing,  as  if,  were  there  anything  going 
on,  the  people  would  attack  .stone  walls!  I  have  heard  that 
a  great  deal  of  brandy  and  biscuits  have  been  sent  to  the 
barracks,  and  I  sincerely  hope  the  poor  soldiers  will  get 
some  of  them.  Your  honest  brothers,  the  soldiers,  Avho  have 
been  sent  to  Ireland,  are  as  orderly  and  as  brave  men  as  any 
in  Ireland.  I  am  .sure  that  not  one  of  you  has  a  single 
complaint  to  make  against  them.  If  any  of  you  have,  say  so. 
(Cries  of  "No!")  They  are  the  bravest  men  in  the  world, 
and  therefore  I  do  not  disparage  them  at  all  when  I  state 
this  fact,  that  if  they  are  sent  to  make  war  against  the 
people,  I  have  enough  women  to  beat  them.  There  is  no 
mockery  or  delusion  in  what  I  say.  At  the  last  fight  for 
Ireland,  when  we  were  betrayed  by  a  reliance  on  English 
honor,  in  which  we  would  never  again  confide — for  I  would 
as  soon  confide  in  the  honor  of  a  certain  black  gentleman 
who  has  two  horns  and  hoofs — but,  as  I  was  saying,  at  the 
last  battle  for  Ireland,  when,  after  two  days'  hard  fighting, 
the  Irish  were  driven  back  by  the  fresh  troops  brought  up 
by  the  English  to  the  bridge  of  Limerick,  at  that  point  when 
the  Irish  soldiers  retired  fainting,  it  was  that  the  women 
of  Limerick  threw  themselves  in  the  way,  and  drove  the 
enemy  back  fifteen,  twenty,  or  thirty  paces.  Several  of  the 
poor  women  were  killed  in  the  struggle,  and  their  shrieks  of 
agony  being  heard  by  their  countrymen,  they  again  rallied 
and  determined  to  die  in  their  defence,  and,  doubly  valiant 
in  the  defence  of  the  women,  they  togetlier  routed  the  Si.xons. 
.    Yes,  I  repeat,  I  have  enough  women  to  beat  all  the  army 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  461 

of  Ireland.  It  is  idle  for  any  minister  or  statesman  to 
suppose  for  a  moment  that  he  can  put  down  sueh  a  struggle 
as  this  for  liberty.  The  only  thing  I  fear  is  the  eonduet  of 
some  ruffians  who  are  called  Eibbonmen.  I  know  there  are 
such  blackguards,  for  I  have  traced  them  from  Manchester. 
They  are  most  dangerous  characters,  and  it  will  be  the  duty 
of  every  Repealer,  whether  he  knows  or  by  any  means  can 
discover  one  of  them,  immediately  to  hand  him  over  to  justice 
and  the  law.  The  Ribbonmen  only,  by  their  proceedings, 
can  injure  the  great  and  religious  cause  in  which  I  am  now 
engaged,  and  in  which  I  have  the  people  of  Ireland  at  my 
back. 

IX.  This  is  a  holy  festival  in  the  Catholic  Church — the  da^' 
upon  which  the  IMother  of  our  Saviour  ascended  to  meet  her 
Son,  and  reign  with  Him  forever.  On  such  a  day  I  will  not 
tell  a  falsehood.  I  hope  I  am  under  her  protection  while 
addressing  you,  and  I  hope  that  Ireland  will  receive  the 
benefit  of  her  prayers.  Our  Church  has  prayed  against 
Espartero  and  his  priest-terrorizing,  church-plundering 
marauders,  and  he  has  since  fallen  from  power — nobody 
knows  how,  for  he  makes  no  etfort  to  retain  it.  He  seems  to 
have  been  bewildered  by  the  Divine  curse,  for  without  one 
rational  effort  the  tyrant  of  Spain  has  faded  before  the 
prayers  of  Christianity.  I  hope  that  there  is  a  blessing  in 
this  day,  and,  fully  aware  of  its  solemnity,  I  assure  you  that 
I  am  afraid  of  nothing  but  Ribbonism,  which  alone  can 
disturb  the  present  movement.  I  have  proclaimed  from 
this  spot  that  the  Act  of  Union  is  a  nullity ;  but  in  seeking 
for  Repeal  I  do  not  want  you  to  disobey  the  law.  I  have 
only  to  refer  to  the  words  of  the  Tories'  friend,  Saurin,  to 
prove  that  the  Union  is  illegal.  I  advise  you  to  obey  the 
law  until  you  have  the  word  of  your  beloved  Queen  to  tell 
you  that  you  shall  have  a  Parliament  of  your  own.  The 
Queen — God  bless  her! — will  yet  tell  you  that  you  shall 
have  a  legislature  of  your  own— three  cheers  for  the  Queen ! 
(Great  cheering.) 

X.  On  the  2d  of  January  last  I  called  this  Repeal  year,  and 
I  was  laughed  at  for  doing  so.  Are  they  laughing  now? 
No:  it  is  now  my  turn  to  laugh  and  I  will  now  say  that  in 
twelve  months  more  we  shall  have  our  Parliament  again 
on  College  Green.  The  Queen  has  the  undoubted  preroga- 
tive at  any  time  to  order  her  Ministers  to  issue  writs, 
which,  being  signed  by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the  Irish 
Parliament  would  at  once  be  convened  without  the  necessity 
of  applying  to  the  English  Legislature  to  repeal  what  they 
appear  to  consider  a  valid  Act  of  Union.     And  if  dirty 


462  EFFECTIVE  PUBLIC  SPEAKING 

Sugden  would  not  sign  the  writ,  an  Irish  Chancellor  would 
soon  be  found  who  would  do  so.  And  if  we  have  our  Parlia- 
ment again  in  Dublin,  is  there,  I  would  ask,  a  coward 
amongst  you  who  would  not  rather  die  than  allow  it  to  be 
taken  away  by  any  Act  of  Union?  (Loud  cries  of  "No  one 
would  ever  submit  to  it!"  "We'd  rather  die!"  etc.)  To 
the  last  man.  (Cries  of  "To  the  last  man!")  Let  every 
man  who  would  not  allow  the  Act  of  Union  to  pass  hold 
up  his  hand.  (An  immense  forest  of  hands  was  shown.) 
When  the  Irish  Parliament  is  again  assembled,  I  will  defy 
any  power  on  earth  to  take  it  from  us  again.  Are  you  all 
ready  to  obey  me  in  the  course  of  conduct  which  I  have 
pointed  out  to  you?  (Cries  of  "Yes,  yes!")  When  I  dis- 
miss you  today,  will  you  not  disperse  and  go  peaceably  to 
your  homes— ("Yes,  yes,  we  will!") — every  man,  woman, 
and  child  ? — in  the  same  tranquil  manner  as  you  have  assem- 
bled ?  ( "  Yes,  yes  ! " )  But  if  I  want  you  again  tomorrow,  will 
you  not  come  to  Tara  Hill?  ("Yes,  yes!")  Remember,  I 
will  lead  you  into  no  peril.  If  danger  should  arise,  it  will 
be  in  consequence  of  some  persons  attacking  us,  for  we  are 
determined  not  to  attack  any  person ;  and  if  danger  does 
exist  you  will  not  find  me  in  the  rear  rank.  When  we  get 
our  Parliament,  all  our  grievances  w\\\  be  put  to  an  end ; 
our  trade  will  be  restored,  the  landlord  will  be  placed  on  a 
firm  footing,  and  the  tenants  who  are  now  so  sadly  oppressed 
W'ill  be  placed  in  their  proper  position.  "Law,  Peace,  and 
Order"  is  the  motto  of  the  Repeal  banner,  and  I  trust  you 
will  all  rally  round  it.  (Cries  of  "We  are  all  Repealers!") 
I  have  to  inform  you  that  all  the  magistrates  who  have 
recently  been  deprived  of  the  Commission  of  the  Peace  have 
been  appointed  by  the  Repeal  Association  to  settle  any  dis- 
putes which  may  arise  among  the  Repealers  in  their  respec- 
tive localities.  On  next  Monday  persons  will  be  appointed 
to  settle  disputes  without  expense,  and  I  call  on  every  man 
who  is  the  friend  of  Ireland  to  have  his  disputes  settled  by 
arbitrators  without  expense,  and  to  avoid  going  to  the  Petty 
Sessions. 
XL  I  believe  I  am  now  in  a  position  to  announce  to  you  that 
in  twelve  months  more  we  shall  not  be  without  having  a 
"Hurrah  for  the  Parliament  on  College  Green  !"  (Immense 
cheering.)  Your  shouts  are  almost  enough  to  call  to  life 
those  who  rest  in  the  grave.  I  can  almost  fancy  the  spirits 
of  the  mighty  dead  hovering  over  you.  and  the  ancient  kings 
and  chiefs  of  Ireland,  from  the  clouds,  listening  to  the 
shouts  sent  up  from  Tnra  for  Irish  liberty.  Oh  T  Ireland  is 
a  lovely  land,  blessed   with  the  boiuiteous  gifts  of  Nature, 


SPECIAL  OCCASIONS     '  463 

and  where  is  the  coward  who  would  not  die  for  her?  (Cries 
of  "Not  one  !")  Your  cheers  will  penetrate  to  the  extremity 
of  civilization.  Our  movement  is  the  admiration  of  the 
world,  for  no  other  country  can  show  so  much  force  with 
so  much  propriety  of  conduct.  No  other  country  can  show 
a  people  assembled  for  the  highest  national  purposes  that 
can  actuate  man ;  can  show  hundreds  of  thousands  able  in 
strength  to  carry  any  battle  that  ever  was  fought,  and  yet 
separating  with  the  tranquillity  of  schoolboys.  You  have 
stood  by  me  long — stand  by  me  a  little  longer,  and  Ireland 
wiU  be  again  a  nation. 


Assignment  of  Work 

The  written  cxereises  in  this  entire  lesson  sliould  he 
carefully  worked  ont.  Keep  copies  of  the  written  exer- 
cises in  vour  notebook. 


First  Day. — Study  the  lesson  thoroughly  and  make  a  written 
analysis  of  Mr.  Burchard's  eulogy.  Comment  in  your  note- 
book on  the  excellence  of  the  arrangement  and  make  sug- 
gestions for  changes  if  you  think  improvement  might  be 
effected. 

Second  Day. — Outline  an  informal  eulogy  of  someone  of  distinc- 
tion in  a  circle,  more  or  less  wide,  with  which  you  are 
familiar.  Plan  it  to  be  delvs^ered  at  an  anniversary  or  occa- 
sion when  he  is  to  be  presented  with  a  gift  in  recognition  of 
services  rendered.  Write  down  definitely  the  occasion,  the 
nature  of  the  audience,  and  your  relation  to  both. 

Third  Day. — Orally  develop  and  deliver  the  speech  as  planned. 

Fourth  Day. — Outline  and  deliver  an  inaugural  address  as: 
president  of  a  social  club,  president  of  a  stock  company 
formed  to  supply  water  to  a  valley  used  by  farmers,  presi- 
dent of  a  political  club  of  radical  character  in  a  neighbor- 
hood formerly  conservative,  or  of  any  other  position  of  which 
you  know  and  in  which  you  take  an  interest. 

Fifth  Day. — Rule  several  sheets  of  foolscap  paper  down  the 
center.  On  the  left  side,  write  a  careful  and  detailed  analysis 
of  the  O'Connell  speech.  On  the  right  side,  indicate  the 
lesson  of  this  course,  and  page  on  which  a  comment  or  prin- 
ciple related  to  the  points  noted,  is  to  be  found. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

These  (juestioiis  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
liis  kiiouhHlge  of  the  principles  in  this  lesson.  They 
are  siifnicfitivc  merely,  dealing  largely  with  the  practical 
a])plieation  of  the  jsrinciples,  and  are  to  be  placed  in  the 
iiotehook   for  future  reference. 

1.  Why  is  the  euh)gy  picked  out  as  a  type  speech  worthy  of 
study  ? 

2.  What  are  the  two  general  plans  of  arrangement  suggested 
either  pure  or  combined  for  the  eulogy  ? 

3.  Give  the  difference  between  the  formal  and  the  intimate 
eulogy.  W^hich  kind  is  used  more  often?  Which  is  usually 
recorded  and  preserved  ? 

4.  How  do  you  like  the  style  of  the  Burchard  speech?  Do 
you  think  the  matter  would  be  ver^^ -interesting  to  men  graduated 
from  the  same  college  as  Compton  and  Burchard  ? 

5.  How  important  is  deep  and  genuine  feeling  through  thor- 
ough familiarity  to  success  in  the  eulogy  ? 

6.  What  are  the  general  purposes  of  an  inaugural  address  ? 

7.  Give  a  type  outline  for  an  inaugural  address. 

8.  Can  you  construct  a  farewell  address?  Have  you  ever 
read  Washington 's  famous  farewell  address  ? 

9.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  make  a  speech  to  a  popular  audience 
on  a  vital  topic  ?  Why  is  such  an  audience  more  difficult  to 
influence  successfully  than  a  special  audience? 

10.  Does  O'Connell  open  his  speech  like  a  man  who  has  to 
establish  himself  with  the  mixed  crowd  before  him,  or  like  one 
who  is  sure  of  his  reception  by  any  Irish  crowd? 

11.  In  paragraph  II  he  says,  "Would  any  man  be  mad 
enough  to  assert  it;  would  any  man  be  insane  enough,  etc.?" 
Have  you  ever  come  across  this  rhetorical  device  before  ?  Have 
you  read  the  speech  of  Brutus  over  the  body  of  Caesar  in 
Shakespeare's  Julius  Caesar? 

^2.  In  how  many  places  does  the  text  show  that  O'Connell 
adapted  his  remarks  to  indications  of  feeling  given  by  the 
audience?  Does  this  require  a  high  degree  of  ease  and  skill  as 
a  speaker  ? 

464 


INDEX 


Action,    nature    of,    291-96. 

Adams,   John,   299-300. 

After-dinner    speech,     430-38. 

Aluminum  compounds,  Wiley  on, 
258-60. 

Americanism,  Schurz  on,  92-93. 

Analogy,  266-67. 

Anniversary  address,  443-52. 

Appeal,  96-99:  to  action,  291-307. 

Application,   92-96. 

Argumentation,  273-87.  See  also 
Arguments. 

Aiguments,   229-47,  251-69. 

Aristotle,   85,   358-59. 

Arrangement  of  material,  68-81,  151- 
52,  356-59. 

Attention,  general  nature,  327-29  ;  of 
audience,  49-54,  327-42  ;  of  speak- 
er, 327-42  :  of  speaker  during  prep- 
aration, 331-33  ;  to  audience,  335- 
36  ;  to  plan,  336-37. 

Attiactiveness,  personal,  44-45,  129- 
39. 

Auto-suggestion,  142-44. 


Bathing,  405-6. 

Bearing  in  an  argument,   287. 

Beecher,    Henrv    Ward,     7-8.    39-40, 

51-52,   130-31,   179-80,   216-18,  336, 

404. 
Blaine,  James  G.,  180. 
Body,   weight   of,    109-10,    396. 
Body   of   a  speech.   17-18,    67-81. 
Boston,  Everett's  description  of,  17  4- 

76. 
Boston   Massacre:      Hancock   on,    42: 

Warren    on,    261-64. 
Breathing,    115-22,    334,    404-5. 
Briefing,   273-84. 
Buckley,    Dr.,    184-85. 
Bullock,    Alexander    H.,    428-29. 
Burchard,    Lewis    S.,    444-51. 
Burden    of    proof,    285-87. 
Burke,  Edmund,  74-75. 


Canal   Toll   Bill,   Root  on.   96-97. 

Card   bibliogi-aphy,    321-22. 

Causation:  as  a  basis  of  order,  75- 
76  :   generalization  of,   254-60. 

Chairman:  of  meeting,  412-15;  of 
occasion,    427-30. 

Charity,  Paul  on,  219. 

Chronological  order,  69-73. 

Classification,  generalization  of,  25  1- 
56. 

Clay,  Henrv,  11-12,  99,  159-60,  301-2. 

Clothing,    402-3. 

Communication  between  minds,  im- 
portance of,  2-3. 


Compton,  A.  G.,  Burchard's  eulogy 
of.  444-51. 

Concepts,  211-25. 

Conclusion  of  a  speech,  18-19,  85-101. 

Confidence,  139-44. 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  19-25. 

Conscience,   137-38. 

Conscious    action,    291-93. 

Constitution:  Hamilton  on,  416-20; 
Henry  on,  353-55. 

Convention:  opening  of,  415  ;  speeches 
in,  415-24. 

Conversation,  as  a  factor  in  acquir- 
ing special  material,   320. 

Corax,    85-86. 

Criticism  of  other  speakers,  13-14. 

Cuban  Problem,  argument  on,  237- 
39. 

Culture,   importance   of,   314-15. 

Curran,   J.    P.,    43,    97-99. 

Curtis,    George  William,    430. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  Adam.s" 
supposed   speech   on,   299-300. 

Deduction,  260-69. 

Definition  of  terms  in  a  speech.  60. 

Demosthenes.    10  8-9. 

Digestion,   401-2. 

Discrimination  between  concepts. 
220-21. 

Distractions:  to  audience,  339-40;  to 
speaker,  337. 

Drinking,  406-7. 

Earnestness,  136-37. 

Effectiveness  :  defined,  1-2  ;  how  at- 
tained, 3-4. 

Efficiency,  1-2. 

Emotion,  its  effect  on  the  voice,  366- 
69. 

Eulogy:  biographical,  443-52;  of  A. 
G.  Compton  bv  Burchard,  444-51  ; 
of  Clav  bv  Lincoln,  11-12  ;  of  O'Con- 
nell  bv  Phillips,  90  ;  of  Sumner  by 
Schurz.    69-73. 

Everett.  Edward,  53,  154,  174-76. 

Exercises  for  gestures,  383-97. 

Exordium,  86. 


Facts,    239-47. 

Feeling    in    the    audience,    31-46,    67, 

78-79. 
Feet,   position   of,    107-9. 
Flexibility  in  posture,  114-15. 
Floor  tactics.   284-85,   358. 
Force,  373-75. 
Fox,  Charles,   421. 
Franklin,   Benjamin,   408. 
Friendline.ss,   132-33. 


465 


466 


INDEX 


Gambling-,  Beecher  on,  179-80. 

Garfleld,  James  A.,  32-38,  180,  336. 

General  ideas,  211-2.5. 

Generalization,  251-60. 

Gestures,  381-97;  automatic,  33.'): 
conti'ol  of,  4  :  voluntary  and  in- 
voluntary, 381-83. 

Grady,  Henry  W.,  9,  .52,  95-96. 

Grant,   U.   S.,   19-25. 

Grattan,  Henry,    423-24. 

Greece,   Henry   Clay  on,   301-2. 


Habitual  attention,   330-31. 
Hamilton,  Alexander,  416-20. 
Hancock,  John,  42. 
Hands,  use  of,  385-97. 
Hav,    John,    43-44,    432-36. 
Heni'y,   Patrick,   2,   52-53,   91,   353-55. 
Home  rule   in    Ireland,   23  5-37. 
Hostility  in  the  audience,  32,  39-41. 
Hugo,  Victor,   50-51,   154-55. 
Hygiene,  138  ;  399-408. 


Ideas:  organization  of.  4-15,  17-29: 
should  be  developed  one  at  a  time, 
10-12. 

Idiomotor  acts,   295. 

Imagery,   151-67,   171-82. 

Imagination,   151-67,  171-82. 

Impulsive   acts,   298-302. 

Inaugural   address,    452-54. 

Indifference  in   the  audience,    41—44. 

Induction,  251-60. 

Ingersoll.  Robert,  161-62,  181. 

Interest  in  the  audience,   49-54. 

Interests  of  speaker,  331-33. 

Introduction  of  a  speech,  18,  31-61, 
275-77. 

Involuntary   attention,   330. 


Jesus  as  a  public  speaker,   188-89. 
'Key-note  speech,"  413-15. 


Language,   mastery    of,    4.      See    also 

Vocabulary-building. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  11-12,  266-67,  352- 

53,    367-68,    452-53. 


O'Connell,   Daniel,   90,   454-63. 

Old  South  Church,  Phillips  on,  349-51. 

Omar      Khayyam,     Hay      on,      43-44, 

432-34. 
Opening   Address,    427-30. 
Opinions,  how   built  up,   230-37. 
Order  of  material,  68-81.  177. 
Organization    of    ideas,    4-15,    17-29. 


Paul,  the  apostle,  219. 

Pauses,   372-73. 

Perkins,   George  W.,   257-58. 

Peroration,  87,  92-99. 

Persisting  stimulus,  305-6. 

Personality,   129-39. 

Personal  research  as  a  factor  in  ac- 
quiring special  material,   319-20. 

Philippines,  brief  on  the  retention  of, 
278-82. 

Phillips.  Wendell,   90-91.   349-51. 

Phonation,   404-5. 

Physical  aspects  of  delivery,  105-24. 

Pitch,   375-78. 

Place  as  a  basis  of  order,  73-74. 

Plan  of  a  speech,   17-29. 

Posture,  106-15,  334. 

Practice,  importance  of,  3-4,  14-15. 
See  also  Preparation. 

Preparation,  importance   of,   141-42. 

Pi-eparation  of  material,   311-23. 

Proem,  85-86. 

Promise  of  gain,   52-54,   329. 

Pronunciation,  automatic,  335. 

Proposition,   274-75. 

Purpose  of  a  speech,  60-61,  345-60. 


Quintilian,  183. 


Reading,   185-87,   320-22. 
Reciprocity  with   Canada,  speech   on, 

54-58. 
Reflection  hour,  146-47. 
Reflex  action.  294. 
Repeal    of    the    Union,    O'Connell    on, 

456-63. 
Research.   319-323. 
Rest,  403-4. 

Retention  of  ideas,  4,  318. 
Robespierre,  51. 
Root,    Elihu,    96-9  7. 


Magnetism,  130-39,   296-97. 

Magnitude  as  a  basis  of  order,  7  4-7. 

Mass  action.  297-98. 

Material,  preparation  of,  311-23. 

Meeting,    how    to    call,    411. 

Mills,  Dr.,   407. 

Modesty,  41-4  4. 

Mouth   hygiene,    407-8. 

Miinsterberg,  Hugo,   229. 


Napoleon,  Ingersoll  on.  162. 
Nervousness,  123-24. 
New   South.  Grady  on.   9. 
Nominating    speech,    organization    of, 

17-29. 
Nomination:    of    Grant   by    Conkling, 

19-25  ;  of  Sherman  by  Garfield,  32- 

38. 
Note-taking,  as  a  factor  in  acquiring 

special  material,  320,   322. 


Schurz,  Carl.  69-73,  92-93. 

Selective   action,    303-6. 

Self-control,  144-45. 

Senses  in  imagery,  163-67. 

Sense-training,  315-16. 

Sherman,  John,  32-38. 

Shock  to  the  audience,  50-52,  329. 

Sincerity,  42-44. 

Slavery.  Beecher  on.  39-40.  130-31. 
216-18. 

Smoking.  406. 

Speakers,  criticism  of.   13-14. 

Speeches  for  special  occasions,  direc- 
tions for,  411-63. 

Speed  in  delivery,   369-73. 

Subjective  aspects  of  delivery.  129- 
47. 

Suggestive  use   of   words,    181-82. 

Summary,   88-91,  100-101. 

Sumner,  Charles:  Bullock  on,  428- 
29  ;  eulogy  of  by  Schurz,  69-73. 


INDEX 


467 


SvUogisms,  261-69. 
Sympathy,  133-36. 


Voice,   363-78  ;    control   of,    4. 
Voluntary   attention,    330,   333-34. 


Tact,  145-46. 

Tariff,  Perkins  on,  257-58. 
Thurston,  John   M.,   292-93. 
Toastmaster,   duties    of,    429-30. 
Tone,  variations  of,  363. 
Trunk,  posture  of,   111-12. 


Unconscious    action,    293-96. 
Understanding    in    the    audience, 
61,  77-78. 


Vocabulary,    automatic    use    of. 


Vocabulary-building-,  183- 
Vocational  talks,  438-40. 


Warren,    Jo.seph,    261-65. 
Washington,    Booker   T.,    43. 
Washington,    George,    12-13. 
Webster,  Daniel,  93-95,  158,  163,  2 

300,  319,  370-71. 
Weight  of  body,  109-10,  396. 
Wiley,  Dr.  Harvey  W.,  258-60. 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  14,  266. 
Wirt,  William,   312-13. 
Witnesses,   240-46. 
Women,  Hay's  speech  on,  434-36. 
Word-analysis,  193-209. 
Word-painting,  151-58,  171-82. 
Words,  supply  of,  182-90,  193-20^ 


Zones  of  attention,  329-31,  333. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subjea  to  immediate  recall. 

^Auir^.n^Tf^ 

HEC'D  i*^ 

JUL  iib  1960 

LD  21A-50m-4,'60                                , 7„ •^■"'*' fr 'i'HI     • 
CA95628l0)476B                                     ^•"'"'KL^^*'"'" 

m^-. 


.^/ 


K  ^  ^ 


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